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This article was originally published as a chapter in the book “Design and Catastrophe: 51 Scientists Explore Evidence in Nature"
When we look up at the starry sky in a cloudless night, we admire the beauty of the picture that opens before our eyes. Countless stars, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies capture our imagination and raise the question, What caused all this to exist? Is it natural that our universe contains such complex (and beautiful) structures? Since the structure of the universe is regulated by natural laws, a second question could be raised that is closely related to the first: Why do these laws act in such a way that all of these complex structures can exist? The “strength” of the laws of physics is determined by the relatively small number of so-called “fundamental constants,” such as the gravitational constant, the speed of light, Planck’s constant, the mass of the electron, and so on. The word “fundamental” means that these constants cannot be derived from any other laws; their numerical values are “given from above,” and we can only measure them experimentally.
For a long time, scientists assumed that the structure of the universe is stable to the variation of these constants. This situation started to change in the first half of the twentieth century when several scientists, such as Paul Dirac, proposed that fundamental constants may change over long periods of time.[1] This proposal triggered intensive study of the potential stability of the universe in the face of possible changes in the fundamental constants. The result of the study, which was unexpected for many scientists, was that our universe is very unstable to such variations. The numerical values of these fundamental constants are fine-tuned to provide the complex structure of the universe that we see. If these constants were to deviate from the measured values, all complex structures in the universe would cease to exist. Following are some examples that demonstrate this statement.
Masses of the Proton and Neutron
These masses are very close to each other with differences between them being 1,000 times smaller than the masses themselves, but making possible the existence of all chemical elements in the universe. If the mass of a neutron were just 1% higher than its actual value, neutrons inside the atomic nuclei of most chemical elements would be unstable. These elements simply could not exist. The same would be true if the mass of a proton were a little smaller than its present value. Conversely, if the mass of a proton were just 0.2% higher than its present value, protons would be unstable and the existence of hydrogen, which is a main constituent component of stars, would be impossible. The same is true for the mass of a neutron—if it were just 0.2% less than its actual value, it would lead to proton instability with dramatic consequences for our universe.
The Constant of the Strong Interactions
The strong interaction is a force that holds protons and neutrons inside the atomic nuclei. If this force (the value of which is determined by the strong interaction constant) were just 5% smaller, it would lead (among other destructive consequences) to the absence of deuterium in our universe. Without deuterium, the proton-proton nuclear reaction—a base reaction in the sequence of nuclear reactions inside the stars—would not proceed, which would lead to a starless universe. If the strong interaction constant were just 2% bigger, it would lead to the existence of a “di-proton” (the bound state of two protons). With the existence of di-protons, the speed of the proton-proton reaction would be 1018 times faster, and stars would burn out completely during a very short period of time, also leading to a starless universe.[2]
Relationship between Gravitational and Electromagnetic Interactions
Gravity is responsible for the force of attraction between all massive bodies in the universe and defines the structure of the universe at large scales. The electromagnetic force is responsible (among other things) for the attractive/repulsive force between electrical charges. An unexpected fact is that the electromagnetic force is 1040 times higher than the force of gravity. Two equally charged massive bodies repel each other ~1040 more strongly by the electric force than attract by the force of gravity. The ratio between the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (10-40 ) is tiny but plays a very important part in the life of stars. If this ratio (which is already very small) were slightly less, all stars would be red dwarfs. If it were just slightly bigger, all stars would be blue giants. In either case, just a small deviation from this number would lead to the absence of Sun-like stars in the universe.[3]
Conclusions
We have considered only three examples of fine-tuning in the universe, but there are many more such examples. The very important questions that emerge are, Who did this? Who (or what) is responsible for this fine-tuning? Who (or what) put all of the fundamental constants in their places? In general, there are only two possible answers to those questions: they were given exactly the right values by chance, or by purpose. If the former is true, we can estimate the probability of such a fine-tuning event occurring just by chance. And if we calculate this probability, it will look really improbable—there are several estimates that vary from 10-3,000 to 10-10 [123]![4,5]. Both of these numbers are indescribably small and simply mean “nothing,” or “impossible.” Modern attempts to overcome this huge improbability by the so-called “multiverse” (many universes) theories should face the facts of non-observability of the other “universes” and non-falsifiability of such theories. And, in the end, we have to return to the first verse of the Bible: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.”
NOTES
[1] PAM Dirac. A new basis for cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 1938; 165(921):199–208.
[2] PCW Davies. The accidental universe. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press; 1982, pp. 69–70.
[3] Ibid., pp. 71–73.
[4] MA Shulgin. О причинах и целях [About the reasons and goals]. In: Kuznetsov, editor. Научный Фундамент идеи Творения [Scientific Foundation for Creation]. Moscow: Издательство «Протестант» [Protestant Publishing House]; 1993, pp. 55–73.
[5] R Penrose. The emperor’s new mind: concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989, p.344
Aleksei Popov is a specialist in elementary particle physics who holds the position of senior scientist at the Institute for High Energy Physics (Protvino, Russia), where he also earned his PhD in Physics. During his career, he has participated in several successful physics experiments at his own Institute, at Brookhaven National Laboratory, and at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. He has authored and co-authored numerous scientific publications.