GEOSCIENCE REPORTS

Spring 1999, No. 27

TWO FIELD SITES NEAR LEONI MEADOWS, CALIFORNIA
Elaine Kennedy, Geoscience Research Institute

FIELD TRIP EAST OF COOL

    Location: The outcrop is 5 miles east of Cool, CA, on California State Highway 193 on the north side of the road. Use pullout and gravel road on the south side of the highway across from the outcrop.
    Geology: The outcrop of rocks visible on the north side of Hwy 193 consists of a mixture of various rock types forming a structure known as a melange. A melange is a mappable body of rocks that contains a variety of blocks and rock fragments. At this locality, some blocks consist of slate, rocks altered by heat and pressure. Other blocks have cooled from molten material (mafic/ultramafic igneous rock or ophiolite; however, this rock may have been altered by metamorphism to albite). Still other blocks are composed of layered chert (mostly quartz) in a red (arkosic) sandstone. The entire melange is overlain by more recent (Tertiary) rocks and modern soils.
    Melanges are common in Northern California. It is thought that these bodies of rock represent sea floor and continental rocks accreted onto the west coast of North America during plate movement. The bedded chert contains microscopic marine organisms (siliceous diatoms) and is thought to have been a siliceous ooze scraped off the ocean floor as ocean crust was subducted beneath the western edge of our continent (accreted deep ocean sediments). This idea may be a good explanation for the inclusion of the cherts in the melange. Another explanation for the origin of such deposits may be that under increased pressure and temperature changes of plate movement, the quartz became mobile, filled and solidified along a joint or fracture in the melange during or after its formation. Contacts and structure within the chert should provide clues to its origin. Hot silica should cause some alteration of adjoining rocks, whereas, a cold emplacement could preserve original structure within the chert. (Note: A large outcrop of chevron-folded, bedded chert may be seen along the road to the Golden Gate Park north of San Francisco.)

FIGURE. Outcrop of melange features east of Cool, CA. SL=slate, Oph=ophiolite, Ch=chert, Ss=sandstone, T=Tertiary.

    Ophiolite is thought to form during the accretion of a deep, volcanic/sediment-filled basin. It consists of dark (mafic) rocks such as basalt or gabbro and may contain some minerals formed by heat and pressure (metamorphosed) such as chlorite.
    Slate typically forms when shale or mud is subjected to increased pressure and/or heat (metamorphism), so the slate may have formed from mud-dominated, shallow ocean sediments from the continental shelf.
    The red sandstone is called "arkosic" because it contains potassium feldspar minerals. Since the feldspars are present and not yet degraded to clays, geologists think that the sandstone must have formed very close to its source area. The sandstone matrix probably formed from poorly weathered, coastal/terrestrial sources.
    Issues: The complexity of these melange features may recall images of the breakup of the "fountains of the deep" at the beginning of the Genesis flood. The shattering of oceanic crust may contribute to rapid vertical and lateral movement of crustal material throughout the flood year and to the present day. Much of this accretion probably took place during lateral plate movement sometime after the initial rifting events. During the flood year, waters were rising and falling while land masses on the shattered crust were also shifting.

FIELD TRIP WEST OF CAMINO

FIGURE. Outcrop of granite that may have intruded or faulted into sedimentary rocks. G=granite, M=metamorphic rocks, P=Paleozoic sediments.

    Location: From Camino drive westbound Highway 50 to Apple Cafe and park in the lot. The outcrop is across the highway.
    Geology: Granite may be used as a technical term for a specific rock type or as a generic term for a suite of rocks. As a specific rock type, granite is composed of three minerals: quartz (SiO2) which is used to make glass; feldspar minerals that decompose into clay minerals [feldspars include plagioclases: solid-solution series from NaAlSi3O8, to pure CaAl2Si2O8; feldspars in pink granites contain potassium and are often called K-feldspars with a general formula of K(AlSi3O8) for orthoclase and microcline]; and mica that commonly includes biotite or the lighter-colored muscovite [phyllosilicates: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 and KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2, respectively].
    Used as a generic term, granites may refer to any light-colored rock that has cooled subsurface, contains quartz, feldspar plus any number of dark (mafic) minerals and has crystals large enough to be seen with the unaided eye.
    Granites form as molten rock (magma) cools and may contain material from another magma body. These inclusions are called enclaves and are very different from "country rock" incorporated from the solid rocks that surround the magma.
    Metamorphism refers to any rocks altered by temperature, pressure, shear stress and chemical influences. Regional metamorphism occurs at considerable depth below the surface of the earth; whereas a contact metamorphism typically produces alteration along the borders of a body of molten rock (magma) and may include activity of that magma.
    Issues: Several issues are important at this locality. 1) How long did it take for this granitic mass to solidify? 2) Did this granite form during the deposition of Mesozoic rocks? 3) Was the contact metamorphism generated during the thrusting/faulting of a cold emplacement of the granites or during the intrusion of a hot mass? What caused the alteration of the Paleozoic sediments?
    1) Cooling rates for granites are based on convection rates for the heat from the entire body. Using this assumption, the cooling rates for the entire Sierra Nevada range would require millions of years. In a flood model, emplacement of such a large, molten body (magma) during the flood is impossible. If a cold body were emplaced, the cooling time is not an issue; however, the resetting of the radiometric clocks would pose a problem. Since cooling of the magma is more complex than a simple convection model proposes, two other factors need to be considered: heat released during fracture fill, and presence or absence of water. Both factors should significantly speed the cooling process.
    2) The timing for the formation of the granite is also important. Confidence that the granites cooled sometime after the deposition of the Paleozoic rocks depends on the validity of the radiometric dates and the nature of the contact between the Paleozoic strata and the granite.
    3) Contact metamorphism associated with a cold emplacement (assuming some remelting of the granite) could reset the radioactive clocks and bake the sediments; however, an intrusive body of magma could generate contact metamorphism, reset the clocks, and bake the rocks around it as well. The data for either scenario is essentially the same. Thus, the data at this locality seem ambiguous. In either case the Paleozoic sediments were altered by contact metamorphism.
    Conclusions: In dealing with the issue of the origin of the rocks that make up our planet, there are no easy answers. Christians need to admit honestly that they have unanswered questions and problems in their view of earth history, while acknowledging the scientific evidence that is inconsistent with their view. Much of the scientific literature challenges beliefs held by the conservative churches. To answer those questions, cautious assessment of the scientific data should be coupled with biblical constraints to provide multiple interpretations of the rock record. Fundamental views on the nature of God and His action in earth history should be defined from a biblical perspective so that the various scientific theories and ideas may be appropriately challenged and tested. Although many people disagree with this union of scientific inquiry and a biblical world view, the conservative Christian community has valid reasons for using a more holistic approach to study and explore our universe. One's interpretation of the Genesis creation account influences one's conclusions about the age of the rocks and play a role in the development of earth history paradigms. Evidence does not compel anyone to believe the biblical account of creation; however, God does give us sufficient empirical evidence to believe His Word.

 

EDITOR'S ANGLE

    Once again we are focusing on field localities where teachers can take their students for a very close look at the geology. Outcrops of the melange sequences similar to the one described in "Field Trip East of Cool" occur across central and northern California.
    One locality that is not included in this paper, but should be mentioned, is an outcrop of bedded chert just north of San Francisco. At the north end of the Golden Gate Bridge, on the west side of Interstate 101, is a small park called Battery Spencer. On the north side of the road across from the parking area is a spectacular outcrop of sharply folded (chevron folded), thinly bedded chert. Many geologists believe these cherts were originally siliceous oozes that formed as organisms with structures made from silica (e.g., radiolarians) died and accumulated on the ocean floor. They think that as the tectonic plates came together, the siliceous material was scraped, folded and accreted onto the western edge of the continental U.S. The timing for the emplacement of these beds is fascinating since the material had to be firm enough to retain its bedding features, yet soft enough to fold.
    Such deposits add elements of complexity to flood models. We must address not only the tectonic issues but also the oceanic conditions that might contribute to the deposition and accumulation of these organisms.

 

SCATTERED NOTES FROM THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

    Editor's Note: For those who believe that life on earth is recent, there are many unsolved scientific questions. We sometimes find points in the scientific literature that are encouraging, and we like to share this information with our readers.

GEOLOGY

Wilkinson BH, Diedrich NW, Drummond CN. 1996. Facies successions in peritidal carbonate sequences. Journal of Sedimentary Research 66(6):1065-1078.

    Geologic literature often refers to Milankovitch cycles in the sedimentary record. These cycles are thought to represent the effects of orbital forcing or long-term changes in climate. In marine sediments the cycles are described from sequences of beds that demonstrate a shallowing of water depth upward through the deposits. The paper cited here reviews the data from previously published papers compared to computer models of random depositional patterns. The authors discovered that the papers failed to demonstrate that each deposit represented a true shallowing upward sequence. Rather, the authors of the previously published research had used key beds to identify their most shallow deposits and assumed the beds both above and below represented deeper water deposits regardless of the rock type or fossils. This paper concluded that the deposits represented a random migration of a variety of environments and thus, the sequences are unrelated to the Milankovitch cycles.
    Comment: For creationists, Milankovitch cycles (some requiring hundreds of thousands of years) are a challenge to a short chronology for earth history. This study demonstrates again that data needs to be carefully assessed from differing perspectives because alternative interpretations are often equally valid.

Taylor PD, Allison PA. 1998. Bryozoan carbonates through time and space. Geology 26(5):459-462.

    Geologists look for patterns throughout the geologic record. In this paper the authors researched patterns of fossil bryozoans using sequence and paleogeographic distributions. They report that in the fossil record the post-Paleozoic bryozoans were deposited and preserved in temperate regions of the earth whereas 68% of the Paleozoic bryozoans were found in tropical deposits. The authors note that the presence of Paleozoic bryozoans cannot be used as definitive criteria to determine non-tropical environments deposited during Paleozoic deposition of the geologic column.
    Comment: While it is interesting to note the differences in depositional patterns for bryozoans, there may be other explanations for the distributions. The authors have assumed that the bryozoans are all buried in situ, however, this may not always be true. The distributions may give us clues regarding flood stages and/or preflood marine conditions.

PHYSICS

(a) Carlowicz M. 1997. New "small comet" images challenge reseachers. EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 78(25):257-258; (b) Schwarzschild B. 1998. Revisiting the rain of cometary snowballs. Physics Today (Nov):20-21.

    Using the Visual Imaging System (VIS), researchers think they have found evidence of a constant rain of small comets against earth's outer atmosphere. Other researchers argue that their evidence can be explained by the effects of the instrumentation and methods used to process the data.
    Comment: Theoretically, at a rate of about a dozen mini-comet impacts per minute, the water contributed to the upper atmosphere and entering earth's hydrologic system could almost fill the present ocean basins after a few billion years. Previous discussions with respect to changes in sea level have focused on the effects of climate and glaciation. An extraterrestrial water source could introduce some interesting ideas about the source of additional water in any paradigm.

 

BOOKS OF INTEREST

Dembski WA (editor). 1998. Mere creation. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press. 475 p.

    Mere Creation is a compilation of a lecture series given at Biola University by 20 scientists. The volume challenges conventional evolutionary concepts from both scientific and philosophical perspectives.

Roth AA. 1998. Origins: linking science and Scripture. Hagerstown, MD: Review & Herald Publishing Assn. 384 p.

    Origins: Linking Science and Scripture has been released by the Review and Herald Publishing Association. Authored by Dr. Ariel A. Roth, Director of GRI from 1980 to 1994, the book is now available through Adventist Book Centers. The volume is packed with interpretations that are consistent with the SDA view of earth history and uses many illustrations from science to support these concepts. This book is excellent for those who see the effects of God's action in nature.

 

A PALEONTOLOGICAL RESEARCH NOTE

    Elaine Kennedy and Jacques Sauvagnat (Director of the GRI Branch Office in Europe) toured the classic dinosaur egg localities in Provence, France and near Lerida, Spain. The eggs at the Spanish locality appear to be deposited in a fluvial (river) sand and fragments of eggshells were abundant both inside some of the half-shells of eggs and in the surrounding matrix. The eggs in Provence were very interesting. No fragments are seen outside the shells. Some fragments do occur within the half shells that have been found. Silts and muds with caliche filled burrows form the matrix. It is possible that the eggs were transported and deposited as whole eggs which were then crushed by overburden as they were buried. French scientists continue to study the region.

 

GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE NEWS

    The year 1998 will be remembered by the GRI staff not only for its closely packed schedule of public appearances, but also for some narrow escapes from physical danger. Field conferences were held in Europe and North America, and Creation conferences were held at tertiary institutions in Peru and the Philippines.
    Rain and fog provided the usual challenges to the work in the Alps, and altitude slowed our pace in the Andes.

FIGURE. Drs. Leonard Brand (Natural Sciences, Loma Linda University), Arthur Chadwick (Southwestern Adventist University), Elaine Kennedy and Clyde Webster were on this bus with their host, Dr Miguel Luna, and others from PUU when this fender bender occurred. The collision delayed their trip to the Andes but all were thankful that no one on the bus was injured. Photos courtesy Clyde Webster.

Conference on Science and Faith

    In addition to the field conferences and other overseas meetings, the Geoscience Research Institute, in cooperation with the Biblical Research Institute, the North American Division of Seventh-day Adventists, and Andrews University, convened a week-long Conference on Science and Faith at Andrews University. The meetings were well received and discussion was lively. Many thanks go to Ben Clausen for his tireless devotion to the logistics of that meeting.

Professional Meetings

    Ben Clausen and Elaine Kennedy, attended professional meetings. Dr. Clausen flew to China for the Ninth International Conference on Geochronology, Cosmochronology, and Isotope Geology. Dr. Kennedy presented a paper to the 15th International Sedimentological Congress in Spain.

Faith and Learning Seminars

    Two GRI scientists participated in Faith and Learning seminars.
    From January 21-29, Ben Clausen presented lectures at the 21st Faith and Learning Seminar at Bolivia Adventist University in Cochababa, Bolivia. His talks were entitled: "A Biblical-Christian Approach to the Sciences"; An Adventist Approach to Origins"; and "Integrating Faith and Learning in the Teaching of Physics."
    From November 24-26, Jim Gibson was one of the presenters at the 23rd Faith and Learning Seminar at the University of Eastern Africa Baraton (UEAB) in Kenya. His talks were entitled: "A Biblical-Christian Approach to Science"; "An Adventist Approach to Origins"; and "Integrating Faith and Learning in the Biology Classroom." Guided by one of the professors from UEAB, Dr. Gibson took a tour of the Masai Mara, where his photography got him into trouble with a Cape Buffalo (see photo above).

FIGURE. An easily irritated Cape Buffalo in Kenya. Photo courtesy Jim Gibson.

    From October 30 to November 4, at the University of Montana's Departments of Chemistry and Geology, Clyde Webster presented six lectures on time issues, followed by a creation weekend at the Missoula SDA Church.

 

MEN OF SCIENCE AND FAITH IN GOD
HENRY SCHAEFER III
Benjamin Clausen, Geoscience Research Institute

    Dr. Henry ("Fritz") Schaefer is the Graham Perdue Professor of Chemistry and director of the Center for Computational Quantum Chemistry at the University of Georgia. He is a five-time nominee for the Nobel Prize and was recently cited as the third most quoted chemist in the world. In a U.S. News & World Report article on creation, he is quoted as saying:

"The significance and joy in my science comes in those occasional moments of discovering something new and saying to myself, 'So that's how God did it.'
    My goal is to understand a little corner of God's plan" (p 62).

    The Real Issue provides a transcript of a lecture he gave at the University of Colorado in 1994. The lecture outlines the need for a God of creation and Schaefer makes his point by quoting Stephen Hawking, "What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe?", and Edwin Schrodinger saying that science "gives us a lot of factual information ... but it is ghastly silent about all and sundry that is really near to our heart, that really matters to us."
    The Big Bang, the idea that the universe had a specific time of origin, has been philosophically resisted by some very distinguished scientists because of its ties to a Creator God. After all, everything that begins to exist must have a cause; and if the universe began to exist, then it too much have a Cause.
    Schaefer details five arguments that have been used for the existence of God: (1) The comological argument - the universe's existence must have a cause outside of it. (2) The teological argument - the design of the universe implies a purpose behind it. (3) The rational argument - the operation of the universe, according to natural law, implies a mind behind it. (4) The ontological argument - man's consciousness of the supernatural implies a God who imprinted such a consciousness. (5) The moral argument - man's built-in sense of right and wrong must have been implanted by a higher being.
    After evaluating the cosmological evidence, Schaefer comes to the following conclusions: A Creator must exist. He must have awesome power and wisdom and He must be loving and just. Each of us falls hopelessly short of the Creator's standard, but He has made a way to rescue us if we trust our lives to Jesus Christ.

References

Geoscience Reports
Spring 1999 No. 27

Editor - Elaine G. Kennedy
Associate Editor - Katherine Ching

Subscription requests, correspondence, and notices of change of address should be sent to: Publications Editor, Geoscience Research Institute, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 USA Annual Subscription rate is $3.00 (US. currency).

Geoscience Reports is a newsletter published by the Geoscience Research Institute to present current happenings at the Institute as well as general-interest articles that deal with creation/ evolution issues for elementary/secondary-school and college science classes. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute.

Staff of the Institute: L Jim Gibson, Director (PhD, biology); Ben L Clausen (PhD, nuclear physics) Elaine G Kennedy (PhD, geology); Clyde L Webster (PhD, chemistry); Katherine Ching, Editor (MA, history); and Janet Williams, Administrative Secretary.