GEOSCIENCE REPORTS

Spring 1993, No. 16

THE EXISTENCE OF DINOSAURS
M. Elaine Kennedy, Geoscience Research Institute

    Humans have been fascinated by "dinosaurs" ever since the term was first published in 1842 by Sir Richard Owen, an English anatomist.1 Owen combined two Greek words — deinos and sauros — to coin the term meaning "terrible lizard." Today, these interesting reptiles form the basis for an amazing array of products designed to appeal to children, ranging from coloring books and plastic models in cereal boxes to TV programs and movies.
    "Did the dinosaurs really live? Couldn't the scientists have mixed up some of the bones?" Such legitimate questions continue to be raised, because information about dinosaurs has come to the public in bits and pieces over the years. What kind of evidence do we have that demonstrate these beasts really lived? Mistakes have been made over the years. In one instance, a so-called dinosaur bone turned out to be a piece of petrified wood! However, the number of genuine dinosaur remains that have been found is staggering. By 1990 complete skeletons for 197 genera had been reconstructed. Skin impressions have been applied to forty-eight of these genera.2

FIGURE 1. A comparison of (1) Saurischian to (2) Ornithichian hip bones. (Adapted from The Dinosaur Data Book, p. 108).

    Dinosaurs were land-dwelling animals that have been divided into two main groups based on the structure of their hip bones. The Saurischians (lizard hip) had three hip bones pointing in different directions, and the Ornithischians (bird hip) had two lower hip bones pointing backward (Figure 1).3 In addition to the hip bones, several features found in the legs and feet of dinosaurs are used for identification: the shape of the femur, the alignment of the knee joint with the hip and foot, the twist in the tibia, the simple hinge joint formed at the ankle, and the long middle toe, as well as numerous ridges, crests, knobs and notches on the various bones.4
    In addition to the overwhelming number of dinosaur bones that have been found to support the existence of these fascinating creatures, trackways,5 skin and scales,6 gastroliths (stomach stones or gizzard stones),7 nests with eggs,8 embryos,9 babies,10 and juveniles11 I have been discovered.
    Dinosaur bone deposits occur on every continent12: By the late 1980s, Alberta's Dinosaur Provincial Park (Canada) had yielded 500 skeletons (50 species). Mexico and Honduras also have several genera. About 110 genera have been described in the United States. In Europe, dinosaurs have been found in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Holland, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Asian dinosaurs are found in Afghanistan, China, India, Iran, Israel, Japan, Laos, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Thailand and in Siberia, along the Amur River and the central Asia region of the former USSR. South American dinosaurs are found in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Uruguay. Sixteen African nations contain dinosaur remains: Algeria, Cameroon, Chad, Egypt, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia and Zimbabwe. Dinosaurs have been found in Antarctica, Australia and New Zealand, as well.
    It is interesting to note that several large dinosaur bone beds have been interpreted as flood deposits. In the badlands of Alberta, Canada, "floods drowned herds up to 10,000 strong."13 Cretaceous dinosaurs found in the deserts of Mongolia were "all evidently drowned by floods."14 Skeletons of dinosaurs "drowned by ancient floods" were preserved by river deposits in Niger and Tanzania.15
    According to the Dinosaur Data Book, by 1990 more than 440 dinosaur genera were known with more than 100 of these genera identified since 1980!16 Research by Dodson (1990) provides a more conservative count: of the 540 proposed genera and 800 species, only 285 genera and 336 species can be positively identified. These figures eliminate the poorly identified, or duplicated species, and specimens no longer considered dinosaurs. Of these 285 genera, 246 have only one species assigned to them. Our understanding of dinosaur diversity within genera is obviously limited. Furthermore, almost half the 285 genera are identified from a single bone.17 By the fall of 1992, the paleontologists at Dinosaur National Monument had identified 100 new sites that need to be researched within the Monument's boundaries.18 This work will greatly enhance our understanding of dinosaurs.
    Vegetarian dinosaurs dominate our current collections. Most of these dinosaurs would be considered large in comparison to people. About half of the flesh-eating dinosaurs were small."19
    How do scientists know that the dinosaur trackways are made by dinosaurs? How do they know the gastroliths were actually used to grind food in the stomachs of dinosaurs? How did they decide the eggs had been laid in nests? How do they know the eggs are dinosaur eggs? How can they distinguish babies and juveniles from small adult dinosaurs? Where did they live? What did they eat? How rapidly did they move? Did they care for their young? Were they warm or cold blooded? Some of these questions will be addressed in the next issue of Geoscience Reports: THE PALEOBIOLOGY OF THE DINOSAURS.

SELECTED REFERENCES

  1. Gore, R. 1993. Dinosaurs. National Geographic 183(1):2-52.
  2. Lambert, D., et al. The Dinosaur Data Book. Avon Books, New York, pp. 38-105.
  3. Benton, M. 1984. The Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Simon & Schuster, New York, p. 12.
  4. Lambert, pp. 20-21.
  5. Carpenter, K. 1992. Behavior of hadrosaurs as interpreted from footprints in the "Mesaverde" Group (Campanian) of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. Contributions to Geology, University of Wyoming 29:81-96.
  6. Czerkas, S. A. 1992. Discovery of dermal spines reveals a new look for sauropod dinosaurs. Geology 20:1068-1070.
  7. Benton, p. 163.
  8. Geodigest. 1992. Going to work on an egg. Geology Today, Nov-Dec. pp. 211-212.
  9. Hirsch, K. F. and B. Quinn. 1990. Eggs and eggshell fragments from the upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Fm. of Montana. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 10:491-511.
  10. Currie, P. J. 1989. Dragons and dinosaurs. Earth Science (summer), pp. 10-13.
  11. Horner, J. R. 1979. Upper K dinosaurs from the Bearpaw Shale (marine) of S-Central Mt. with a checklist of Upper K dinosaur remains from marine sediments in N. Am. journal of Paleontology 53:566-577.
  12. Lambert, pp. 222, 230-265.
  13. Ibid., p. 230.
  14. Ibid., p. 246.
  15. Ibid., p. 261.
  16. Ibid., p. 5.
  17. Dodson, P. 1990. Counting dinosaurs: How many kinds were there? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87:7608-7612.
  18. Personal communication, Park Ranger, Dinosaur National Monument.
  19. Lambert, pp. 108-171.

FIGURE. Chasmosaurus, an Ornithischian dinosaur, belonging to the suborder Ceratopsia (horned faces Photo by Jim Gibson, courtesy Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada.

 

EDITORIAL

    In this issue we continue our series of feature articles on unusual animals found preserved in the geologic record. As you have probably noticed already, this particular issue is devoted to dinosaurs. We plan to provide additional information on these interesting creatures in the Fall issue of Geoscience Reports.
    Over the years I have heard many ideas expressed regarding dinosaurs. Some people do not think they ever existed. Several theories have been given to explain the dinosaur bones that are found by paleontologists: God created the earth with the bones already in place; Satan created the bones to confuse us; they are bones of other animals that have been improperly assembled; the reconstructions are imaginary and based on only a few fragments of reptile bones. Such "disbelievers" entirely discount the tremendous amount of data that has been amassed about the dinosaurs over the past few years.
    In putting together the information for this issue, we made an editorial decision to include the rather large list of countries. We are including this list for two reasons. First, Geoscience Reports is distributed worldwide to Adventist science educators. Second, the major articles in this paper are intended for teacher information and classroom use. Teachers are encouraged to copy the articles for distribution to the students. The list of countries and localities can be used for "map work." Dots, flags or dinosaur stickers placed on a world map effectively illustrates the distribution of dinosaurs. By using a world map without identified nations, an exercise in world geography could be easily combined with science class. Students might want to color the nations or draw their own dinosaur figures on the maps.
    If teachers discuss the articles in class, the students may raise some questions of their own with respect to dinosaurs, such as, "Did God create them? Were dinosaurs on the ark?" These are difficult questions, and the best answer may be, "I don't know." Scientific information cannot answer these questions. Students need to know that dinosaurs form a very small part of the vast number of organisms that are extinct today. Three major factors may have contributed to the extinctions: the Genesis flood, the Ice Age and the drastic changes to Earth's surface, and climate and food supply that was brought about by the first two events.
    Dinosaurs are fascinating, and certainly it is difficult to cover all of the issues and information that is available.
    If you have questions or comments on this topic, please take a few moments to share with us. Once again let me encourage you to write or call us. Send letters to us at:

Geoscience Reports
Geoscience Research Institute
Loma Linda, CA 92 350

You may prefer to:

Phone: (909) 824-4548
FAX: (909) 824-4314,
or e-mail:
GRIMKE@LLLUVM.BITNET

 

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

    We appreciate very much the opportunity to print the following poem by Dr. Thomas Sinclair Geraty. Teachers may find it useful for stimulating a worship discussion.

INTANGIBLES
 Genesis 1,2; Psalm 33:6,9; Job 38

By faith alone we trust our God —
    The Bible is our norm —
In seven days He made the earth
    And with His word did form
The seas and land and all therein
    And found all "very good."
For life and breath and robust health
    He provided food;
Intelligence and power of choice
    Were given humankind
To exercise in blissful scenes
    Their heart and soul and mind.
The weekly cycle started then
    And ended with the rest
In mem'ry of Creation's God,
    The Sabbath day so blessed.
The Christian's view is Bible-based
    For thus "saith the Word";
For how the world came to be
    God spoke, and things occurred.
Paleoanthropologists
    Confuse their time and place:
"For who relate to whom," they ask
    "In chronology and space?"
The Hominoids and Homo true
    Lack missing links to prove
In rational and logic ways
    What many disapprove.
Why blood islands clot and form
    Is very hard to see
Before the vessels that come next
    In embryology.
Class, and Order, Genus all
    And Species in its place
Are recognized the world around
    In taxonomic base.
The Protists, Fungi, Plants and Kin,
    And Animals to see
Are recognized for what they are
    In spite of chemistry
From whence came quasar, sun and star?
    And gravitation pull?
And why black holes in galaxy?
    What makes the moon so full?
In systems closed momentum stays
    And energy is saved,
But how can quantum bosons move
    When protons misbehaved?
In distances beyond our Ken,
    In light-years with the spheres
Who controls exactitude
    Of days and months and years?

FIGURE. Photo courtesy of J.P.L.

    One of our readers phoned a few weeks ago asking about the implications of the article Chaos in Physics by Dr. Ben Clausen. Her questions, along with the author's response, are included here:

Q. Does Chaos Theory mean there is no real order in nature? Does it have impact on the validity of our argument for origin by design?

A. Chaos theory does not suggest that there is a lack of order in nature. In addition to describing simple and orderly systems that become too complex (chaotic) to model, the theory also studies complex or seemingly chaotic systems where order at a higher level is observed (sometimes quite unexpectedly). Here are examples from meteorology and biology:
    The physical principles governing the flow of water and air on the earth are relatively well understood — the earth's rotation and the Coriolis force, temperature and pressure variations due to differential solar heating, water movement from evaporation and condensation, heat transfer from convection, conduction and radiation, etc. Order at the higher level of the earth's general weather patterns is also partly understood. However, the order in the higher-level worldwide weather patterns is part of too-complex a system to be able to use first principles to totally predict them. It is not possible to completely reduce complex weather systems to simple physical laws.
    The physical principles governing our body are well understood — the chemistry of digestion, the transfer of electrochemical signals, the physics of sight and hearing, the flow of body fluids, the mechanics of motion and muscle actions, etc. The body functioning as an orderly system is also partly understood. However, attempts to reduce the functioning of the body as a unit to a set of simple physical and chemical interactions have not been successful.
    Both examples exhibit order, but reductionism has not been able to completely explain the higher level of order in terms of the lower level.
    Although self-organization principles derived from chaos theory (order developing out of a chaotic system) have been suggested as a possible clue to the origin of life, I haven't seen any successful applications of this theory.
    Chaos theory aids the concept of origin by design. To arrive at the complex interactions of simple physical laws found in nature requires a designer with more wisdom than any human has, and much more than would be possible by random chance.
    In the non-technical book The Accidental Universe (Cambridge, 1984), Paul Davies gives examples of order found in our universe. In the more comprehensive book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (Oxford, 1986), John Barrow and Frank Tipler give numerous examples of fine tuning from physics, astrophysics, cosmology, and biochemistry. Scientists have sometimes explained the evidence for design in nature by invoking the Anthropic Principle: what we can expect to observe must be restricted by the conditions necessary for our presence as observers. Many others have seen evidence for design as directing us to an Intelligent Designer.

FIGURE. Photos of the Mandelbrot Set (FRACTINT), a classic example of chaos.

 

GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE NEWS

We've Moved — But Not Far!

    During the week of February 15, GRI moved its offices from the basement of the Magan Administration Building to 10970 Parkland Avenue. The new locality is at the corner of Stewart and Anderson, across the street from Lindsay Hall. The new quarters, with rose-colored carpet and freshly painted walls, are a marked improvement over the basement quarters. However, the offices are less convenient with respect to labs, library, museum collections and some storage.

FIGURE. 10970 Parkland Avenue, new locality for the Geoscience Research Institute.

Field Conferences

    Drs. Roth, Clausen, Gibson, and Webster conducted two field conferences for the South Pacific Division. From January 7 to 20, educational personnel traveled with the GRI staff in Australia and New Zealand, studying the local geology from the perspective of a short chronology for earth history. From January 21 to February 3, administrative and ministerial personnel discussed the same issues while traveling from New Zealand to Australia. Field work encompassed topics from glaciation to volcanology. After the field conference, the staff was invited to visit Avondale College to discuss the interface between science and religion with the faculty.

Staff Activities

    All of the Institute staff members have been busy with research, publications, teaching responsibilities and seminars. A fist of staff publications over the past year is available upon request.
    Dr. Clausen attended the American Geophysical Union meetings in Baltimore, MD, May 24-28. Dr. Gibson presented a seminar at Loma Linda University titled "Numerical Biogeography of Australian Mammals" on April 12. Dr. Kennedy presented a poster session at the Annual Convention for the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
    In addition, members of the staff have presented lectures and/or taught classes at Andrews University, Loma Linda University, West Indies College and Montemorelos University.

NAD Secondary Science Teachers' Workshop

    The staff is currently preparing materials for the North American Division Secondary-Level Science Teachers' Workshop to be held in Flagstaff, Arizona, July 12-22. The workshop focuses on current issues in creationism. Lectures and classroom activities have been developed around this theme and include materials addressing evolution and time.
    A tour of the Lowell Observatory has been arranged in addition to the field trips to the Grand Canyon, Meteor Crater and Petrified Forest. Dr. Ariel Roth, Director of GRI, will be leading out in the field work.

 

THE FUTURE OF OUR PLANET
Mario Veloso, Associate Secretary
General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists

    United Kingdom Prime Minister John Major, in his five-minute talk to the United Nations delegations gathered at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on June 12, 1992, stated, "This meeting is unlike any other. We are all used to summits on this or that crucial issue where each of us fights hard for our own national interest. Today we are here, not to argue for a national cause, but for the future of our planet." Earth Summit refers to the final three days of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Approximately 140 heads of state, delegations from 178 countries, representatives from more than 1000 non-government organizations, and about 9000 journalists attended the conference.
    In an effort to reestablish the quality of the environment and achieve an environment-friendly development, UNCED dealt with the following issues: 1) protection of the atmosphere — climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, transboundary air pollution; 2) preservation of land resources — combating deforestation, soil loss, desertification and drought; 3) protection of freshwater resources; and 4) preservation of oceans, seas, coastal areas, and their living resources. Other issues, related to the quality of life, include illegal traffic of toxic products, eradication of poverty, and management of biotechnology. Specific areas of neglect and abuse were cited as critical issues that must be addressed by the world community.
    Is there any real possibility of saving the earth through UN instrumentalities? There is a united awareness of the problem and a clear concern expressed by all nations. Though the cost of preserving our environment is staggering, delegates to UNCED repeatedly expressed concern that unwillingness to expend this money could put the whole of humanity in danger of extinction. Real commitment to actually do what is needed seems to still be left for the future. UNCED did appoint the Sustainable Development Commission to work on the implementation of the agenda items. However, the language for the role of the Commission in monitoring the fulfillment of the agreements and treaties is too soft and too diplomatic. This creates the need for a stronger United Nations as a central world political structure with "universal legal power" to issue laws that every "country-state" member would be under obligation to fulfill.
    Despite these efforts to stem the tide of reckless mismanagement of our natural resources, the destruction of our planet by humanity's irresponsible use of its resources will continue until the end of time. According to the book of Revelation, in the days of the seventh trumpet, when the kingdom of God begins over the earth, God will "destroy those who destroy the earth" (Rev 11:18) to make a "new earth" (Rev 21:1) with no danger of desertification, plenty of fresh water, unpolluted, without poverty and sustainable for eternity (Isaiah 35:1,6,7,8,10).

 

VARIETIES OF DINOSAURS
M. Elaine Kennedy, Geoscience Research Institute

    Dinosaurs are usually classified into two main groups or orders: Saurischia (sawr-ISK-ee-a) and Ornithischia (ornith-ISK-ee-a). Saurischians (lizard hip) had large holes in the skull that reduced the weight of the skull and teeth that grew along the outer edge of the jaws. Ornithischians (bird hip) had a beak, an extra bone at the tip of the jaw and the crowns of their teeth were leaf-shaped.1
    There are three suborders of Saurischians: Theropoda (THER-oh-PODE-a), meaning beast feet; Sauropodomorpha (SAVVR-oh-PODE-a-MORF-a), meaning lizard feet; and Segnosauria (SEG-no-SAW-ree-a), meaning "slow lizard."
    The theropods included most of the carnivorous dinosaurs. They were bipedal (walked on two legs), had sharp teeth, scales, a long bony core in the tail, and fingers with claws. Some theropods were smaller than a chicken; others were larger than an elephant.1 There are five infraorders of theropods2: Coelurosauria (see-LOO-roe-SAW-ree-a) were small meat-eaters; Carnosauria (KAR-no-SAW-ree-a) were large meat-eaters; Deinonychosauria (DIE-no-NIKE-oh-SAW-ree-a) had a stiff tail and a large claw on the second toe of both feet; Ornithomimosauria (or-NITH-oh-MIME-oh-SAW-ree-a) had large eyes and looked like an ostrich without its feathers; and Oviraptorosauria (OVE-ih-RAP-toro-SAW-ree-a) had a strong beak, and because the first skeleton was found above a protoceratops (pro-toe-SER-a-tops) nest, researchers thought the beak was used to crunch dinosaur eggs — hence the name Oviraptorosaur means "egg stealer."
    The sauropodomorphs were plant eaters. They had small heads with a large body and legs, plus a long neck and tail. There were two infraorders.1 Prosauropoda (pro-SAWR-oh-PODE-a) ranged in size from small to large and walked on two and/or four legs. The hands and feet had five digits with thumb claws. The teeth were spoon-shaped. Sauropoda (SAWR-oh-PODE-a) were the largest land animals to ever live.
    Segnosaurias (SEG-no-SAW-ree-a) had bone structures that seem to be a combination of both orders of dinosaurs: bird- and lizard-like.
    There are six suborders of Ornithischial: Ornithopoda (or-NITH-oh-PODE-a), meaning bird feet; Scelidosauria (skel-IDE-oh-SAW-ree-a), meaning "limb lizard"; Stego-sauria (STEG-oh-SAW-ree-a), meaning roof lizard; Ankylosauria (an-KY-low-SAW-ree-a), meaning "fused lizard"; Pachycephalosauria (PAK-ee-KEF-al-oh-SAW-ree-a), meaning "thick-headed lizard"; and Ceratopsia (SER-a-TOP-see-a), meaning "horned faces."
    Most of the ornithopods resembled the theropods. Some of the more common dinosaurs listed in this suborder include the hypsilophodon3 (hip-si-LOAF-oh-don) with eggs found in Montana, camptosaurs (KAMP-toe-SAWR) with hooves on its fingers, iguanodons (i-GWA-no-DON) with hooves on its toes, and hadrosaurs (HAD-roe-SAWR) with the duckbill-shaped skull.
    Scelidosaurs had bony studs and scales on their backs. They were small, probably slow moving, quadrupeds with a long tail and short neck.
    Stegosaurs had two rows of bony plates extending from the back of the head, down the back and along the tail. Spikes projected from its shoulders and lower portion of the tail. The neck was short and the brain was small.
    The ankylosaurs were armored with plates, studs, horns and spikes. The tail ended in a club-shape. The skull was protected by slabs of bone so the shape of the head was as long as it was wide.
    Pachycephalosaurs had a domed head with a roof up to 10" thick. These dinosaurs were bipedal and had a stiff tail.
    Ceratopsias had a parrot-like beak and a triangular head. The face had a horn on the nose and one above each eye. A bony frill covered the neck.

SOURCES

  1. Lambert, D., et al. 1990. The Dinosaur Data Book. Avon Books, New York, pp. 107-171.
  2. Benton, M. 1984. The Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Simon & Schuster, New York, pp. 34-127.
  3. Hirsch, K. F. and B. Quinn. 1990. Eggs and eggshell fragments from the upper K Two Medicine Fm. of Montana. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 10(4):491-511.

Drawings adapted by permission from The Dinosaur Data Book, p. 108.

Geoscience Reports
Spring 1993, No. 16

Editor - M. Elaine Kennedy
Associate Editor - Katherine Ching

Subscription requests, correspondence, and notices of change of address should be sent to: Geoscience Reports, Geoscience Research Institute, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 U.S.A. Annual subscription rate is $3.00 (U.S. currency).

Geoscience Reports is a newsletter published by the Geoscience Research Institute to present current happenings at the Institute as well as general-interest articles that deal with creation/evolution issues for elementary/secondary-school and college science classes. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute.

Staff of the Institute: Ariel A. Roth, Director (Ph.D., zoology); Ben L. Clausen (Ph.D., nuclear physics); L. Jim Gibson (Ph.D., biology); M. Elaine Kennedy (Ph.D., geology); Clyde L. Webster, (Ph.D., chemistry); Katherine Ching, Editor (MA., history); and Janet Williams, Administrative Secretary.