GEOSCIENCE REPORTS
Fall 1992, No. 15
FOSSIL GIANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
Leonard Brand, Loma Linda University
Zoos are fascinating for their exhibits of the diversity of life that exists on our earth, and at least some of us are particularly intrigued by the tall giraffes, the massive elephants, or such unique exhibits as fist-sized tropical beetles or foot-long walking sticks. We tend to be quite impressed with large animals. Can you imagine a rhinoceros taller than a house, that could reach down and eat the shingles from your roof?
When we examine the fossil record it becomes clear that a great diversity of life that once existed is now extinct. Included in this category are many animals much larger than the largest ones living on land today. The group of large fossils that probably comes to mind first are the dinosaurs. The enormity of many of the dinosaurs is truly spectacular, and discoveries in recent years of "supersaurus" and "ultrasaurus" continue to break dinosaursize records. Of course, the dinosaurs were a diverse group, ranging from chicken-sized to the 100+' "ultrasaurus" (Fig. 1A). When measured in terms of body mass, the living blue whales still appear to be the largest animals that have ever lived, even though the largest dinosaurs were longer than blue whales. Regardless, the large dinosaurs are the indisputable giants of all time among land-dwelling animals.
Figure 1. Fossil forms compared to smaller, similar, living species. A - "ultrasaurus," a dinosaur similar to Brachiosaurus; B - pterodactyl compared to an Andean condor; C - crocodiles; D - Carcharadon sharks.
Mesozoic rocks (Ed. Note: The geologic column is outlined in Table 1 at the end of this
article) contain not only dinosaurs, but also a variety of other large, extinct reptiles. In the marine environment there were plesiosaurs — long-necked reptiles up to 50' long —
and fish-like ichthyosaurs up to 45' long. In the skies above them, flying reptiles called pterodactyls (Fig. 1B) ranged from sparrow-sized to airplane-sized masters of the air having up to 36' wingspans.
The large Mesozoic reptiles were not the only unusually large animals. It is generally true that many types of animals living today are represented in the fossil record by extinct relatives that cover a wider size range than the living forms. Some fossil elephants are larger than modern elephants, but some are much smaller, too. It is intriguing to note how many groups of fossil animals, from arthropods to mammals, include extinct types that are much larger than any living member of that group.
From Paleozoic deposits we find some most impressive invertebrates. Among them are land arthropods such as dragonflies (Fig. 2A) with 30" wingspans and spiders (Fig. 2 B) measuring nearly 2' across their legs. Eurypterids (Fig. 3A) were a group of marine arthropods. Many species were small, but some were 2-3X larger than the size of the largest modern arthropod, the American lobster.
(Ed. Note. The American lobster is the largest modern arthropod by weight; the Japanese crab has a smaller body but a longer legspan: up to
12'.)
Figure 2. Fossil organisms compared to smaller, living forms. A - dragonflies; B - spiders; C - penguins; D - hyraxes.
Cretaceous deposits contain "ultrasaurus" and pterodactyls (Figs. 1A,B) as well as some other large animals unpleasant to meet on a dark jungle path. The largest known fossil crocodiles (Fig. 1C) are 50' long. If one of those reptiles were lying down, many of us would not be tall enough to see over its back! In the marine environment, Cretaceous turtles (Fig. 3B) were 50% larger than the largest modern, marine turtles.
Figure 3. Fossil forms compared to smaller, similar, living species. A - eurypterid compared to a lobster; B - marine turtles; C - gannets; D - beavers; E - glyptodon compared to giant armadillo; F - creodont and Alaskan brown bear.
In the Oligocene are found hyraxes (Fig. 2C) the size of lions. (Modern hyraxes are not much larger than woodchucks.) The plains of Nebraska may seem to be an unlikely place to look for a rhinoceros as tall as a house, but reconstructed bones of the rhinoceros Baluchitherium (Fig. 4A) indicate a shoulder height of approximately 18'. A fossil shark from the genus Carcharodon (Fig. 1D) is approximately 3X longer than the largest living shark in the same genus, the 22' great white shark.
Figure 4. Fossil forms that are much larger than similar, living species. A - Baluchitherium compared to a rhinoceros; B - "big bird" compared to an Andean condor; C - giant ground sloth compared to a two-toed sloth.
From the mid-Tertiary, fossil penguin remains (Fig. 2D) have been recovered. The penguin stood head and shoulders above the
modern Emperor penguin.
Miocene deposits contain a wolverine twice as large as the modern wolverine, and some very interesting birds. Osteodontornis (Fig. 3C) was an oceanic bird related to gannets and cormorants, but had a 15' wingspan. In the Miocene of Argentina, "Big Bird" (Fig. 4B) was a somewhat vulture-like bird with wings equivalent to those on a Cessna airplane. Big Bird would weigh approximately 200 lbs and, while standing, could look a 6' man straight in the eye. No other known flying bird approaches the size of Big Bird.
Sloths (Fig. 4C) that live in today's tropical jungle have fossil relatives, the giant ground sloths that were bigger than a modern elephant. Giant ground sloths are found in Pleistocene deposits. Other giant Pleistocene animals include a 14' long Australian land turtle, a bear-sized beaver (Fig. 3D); and a 15' glyptodon (Fig. 3E) as large as a brown bear (Fig. 3F).
While many giant animals only lived before the Noachian flood, some large animals, such as the giant ground sloths, lived during post-flood times. When we compare our modern fauna and flora with the much more diverse fauna and flora represented in the fossil record, it becomes clear that significant segments of Earth's former inhabitants are now extinct. The extinct large animals give us a clearer picture of what was meant by Ellen White's statement that before the flood there were animals many times larger than now exist
(Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 112). At this time we don't have fossils of the large pre-flood humans, but other large animals are a conspicuous feature of the fossil record. It is fascinating to try to imagine what the world originally was like when these giant animals lived on Earth.
Table 1. Geologic Column
CENOZOIC Quaternary Pleistocene Tertiary Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene Paleocene MESOZOIC Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic PALEOZOIC Permian Pennsylvanian Mississippian Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian PRECAMBRIAN Note. The Geologic Column forms a composite diagram of the various rock layers found in the earth.
EDITORIAL
In this issue we begin a series of feature articles on some of the more unusual animals found preserved in the geologic record. Dr. Leonard Brand, Chairman of the Department of Natural Sciences at Loma Linda University, authored this first article with illustrations by Carole Buchheim. We want to thank them for their efforts.
I have wanted to put together this series because of some discussions I have had with Seventh-day Adventists over the past year. It seems that whenever the concept of "unusual organisms" is mentioned, some people immediately translate that phrase into "big dinosaurs." We shall indeed discuss dinosaurs, but not just the large ones. We also plan to produce future articles on mammal-like reptiles and extinct mammals. We hope that the series will provide our readers with a broader perspective on the wide variety of animals that did not survive the Noachian Flood. There are a number of myths that need to be dispelled (some of them may be my own!). We will try to bring you the "latest and greatest" with much of this material.
The volume of material that is available seems overwhelming, and much of it is either out-of-date or poorly researched. Any information or questions that you, our readers, might have on these topics would be greatly appreciated. Our goal is to be of service to our science teachers, nonscientists and pastors. To be effective, we need input from you. Your comments will help us focus the articles.
SCIENCE NEWSNOTES
Southern California Rocking and Rolling as Usual
The June 28 earthquakes in Yucca Valley and Big Bear, California, have raised serious questions in the minds of geologists. Some think a new strand of the San Andreas fault may be forming up through the Landers area. Some think more stress has been transferred to the San Andreas fault. Some think the "brake" has been released and it will just be easier for the San Andreas fault to slip. Whatever the current earthquake activity means, the residents of Southern California have decided that now is the time to take earthquake preparedness seriously. Area news reports continue to address safety and preparedness issues, as well as the latest theory regarding the implications of the earthquake activity. Rumors abound with regard to the imminent occurrence of "the Big One." Richter scale estimates range from 8.0 to 9.3. Nearness ranges from any minute to 30 years from now. We don't know when, we just know it's closer" is an oft-quoted phrase. The only thing we do know is that earthquake activity is a way of life in Southern California. [Editor].
Photo courtesy of Jeff Cassidy.
Intelligent Genes
Genetic information on chromosomes (genomes) seems to be organized for functional efficiency. Genomes contain information feedback loops, information is processed sequentially during development, and multiple information modules are sequentially activated. Repetitive sequences permit functional integration of various parts of the genome. Repetitive "non-coding" sequences (those sequences that do not make amino acids) seem more important in species differences than protein sequences. Most mutations are not random, but may be thought of as genome reprogramming functions. Genes can be thought of as acting within an integrated system that can be turned on and off according to the needs of the organism. For example, genetic damage can be repaired on the proper strand of the DNA helix and genomes can respond appropriately to changing conditions. [Shapiro, J.A. 1991. Genomes as smart systems. Genetica 84:3-4.]
Mollusks Are Almost All There
Completeness of the fossil record has been much debated. Two recent studies have addressed this problem for marine mollusks. In one survey, 16 studies of live/dead associations were reviewed. Of living species, 83% to 95% were found dead at the same site. In short-term studies, only 33 % to 54% of the dead species had their living associated with them but longer study periods raised this figure to 75%. One conclusion was that a study should last as long as the longest-lived species. Apparently, rare shells and small shells are the least reliable. In a previous study conducted in Baja California, a researcher (Valentine, 1989) found fossils for 77% of the living species of mollusks, and estimates up to 85% may be found with further searching. These studies suggest that the fossil record may be much better for mollusks than previously thought. [Kerr, R.A. 1991. Old bones aren't so bad after all. Science 252:32-33.]
Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field
Causes for the reversal of Earth's magnetic field have been a hot topic for the past year. Several theories have been advanced. The possibility that external processes, such as asteroid impacts, affect the polarity of the earth has been largely rejected. Seismic studies indicate factors (physical, thermal and/or chemical) at the core-mantle boundary may be responsible for some reversals but probably not all of them. Some reversals may be linked to changes in the mantle. [Jacobs, J.A. 1992. Causes of changes in reversals of the earth's magnetic field: inside or outside the core? EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 73:89, 91.]
GEOLOGY NUGGETS: A GSA REPORT
NOTE. The Geological Society of America (GSA) is a professional organization for geologists. Annual meetings provide opportunities for interchange among a wide variety of disciplines within the geosciences.
Discussions on Science Education
At the 1991 annual meeting session for Science Education, geologists were encouraged to become involved with their local school districts. Ideas for involvement ranged from fund raisers to workshops for educators. Speakers presented ideas from materials that have been developed to assist earth-science educators in teaching map skills and basic principles of science, specifically geology. This, of course, includes the teaching of evolution. Because of the current popularity of dinosaurs, speakers encouraged evolution lectures incorporating information on dinosaurs. One abstract describing a university course on dinosaurs stated: "The purpose of the university course was to teach principles of paleontology, evolution and dinosaur biology." The course develops an activity-oriented curriculum for the use of K-5 teachers.
Another abstract clearly stated: "Skepticism does not come naturally to people; it must be learned. Pseudoscience topics discussed in a one hour lecture in Introduction to Geology include creation science, astrology, mysteries, witching and crystal power."
The most even-handed presentation came from a lecturer for a community course taught on the evolution-creation controversy. The speaker's comments included: "We need to be more sensitive to those who espouse creation. We aren't going to change a life-time of religious convictions in one year."
Another speaker concluded his abstract with: "We must avoid cornering the student into taking a stand based on feelings, and stress the thoughtful consideration of evidences and an understanding of the nature of science."
Discussions on Extinctions
There seem to be two camps within geology on the issue of extinctions:
stepwise (gradual) extinction versus instantaneous extinction (e.g., sudden
disappearance at the Cretaceous-Tertiary [K-T] boundary. approximately 65 million years ago according to evolutionary theory). For some, step-wise extinction requires "environmental chaos in the world's oceans," attributed to meteorites or "impact swarms." Dinosaurs were cited as evidence of a catastrophic event at the K-T boundary (all dinosaurs are extinct at that point: "abundant tracks occur at multiple stratigraphic levels, suggesting that large dinosaur populations persisted to the end of the Cretaceous"). On the other hand, dinosaurs were cited also as evidence of gradual extinction prior to the K-T boundary (continuous reduction of diversity through the rock record). Some argue the data base is too small to be statistically significant, and conclusions drawn with regard to extinctions are futile. Others argue: "Acceptance of a late Cretaceous mass extinction 'event' is an erroneous assessment based largely on false assumptions of biostratigraphy, coupled with little understanding of phylogenetic methods."
It seems dinosaurs may be used to support any paradigm. Perhaps the people in education who want to use the popularity of dinosaurs to boldly promote evolution should talk to the people who work with the bones, since the evidence is rather limited and the conclusions drawn to date are very tentative.
Palynology (study of pollen and spores) supports instantaneous extinction at the K-T boundary. Terrigenous (land) plant macrofossils leaves, stems, etc.) were cited for sequential loss of diversity prior to the K-T boundary. The argument continues....
One of the most interesting papers dealt with "Mass kill of aquatic plants at the K-T boundary near Teapot Dome, WY." In it the author suggests: "All the leaves have circular holes <1.5 mm in diameter that penetrate major veins as well as soft tissue; the tissue bordering the holes uniformly extends downward, indicating that the hole forming objects (microtektites?) penetrated from above." And, "Leaf cuticles of the lotus have structural deformation that is experimentally duplicated by freezing leaves of extant lotus.... At the time of freezing, the pond-lily had produced seeds but the lotus had not yet fruited. This indicates that the freezing from an impact winter probably occurred in June." If only the vertebrate paleontologists could be so specific!
Regarding Canyon Formation
According to one GSA abstract on canyon erosion: "Gradient (base level-lowest level of erosion) and bed load (debris flows were included) may be more important factors in canyonland evolution than geologic time." The longest estimate for canyon erosion according to the author is 14,000 years. The estimate included maximum erosion time for the Grand Canyon. This assumes lithified strata (hard rock) had developed prior to erosion. For many geologists this is a surprisingly short time frame for canyon erosion. The time would, of course, be much shorter if the strata were not completely lithified at the time of erosion.
Regarding Volcanic Sequences
Poster sessions are an important part of the GSA meetings. These sessions have printed abstracts similar to the oral presentations. In one such abstract the author had dated the Crescent volcanic sequence of the Olympic Peninsula by Argon-39/Argon-40. He concluded that "extrusion continued for at least 10 million years (m.y.), from 56±1.0 Ma (million years before present) to 45.4±0.4 Ma. However, his poster session identified two flows below the 56 Ma flow at 51 Ma and 38 Ma. Events expected to trigger the flows are dated at 60 Ma. So his volcanic activity is about 3 to 4 m.y. late at best and 22 m.y. late at worst. In addition, the ages for the lower flows are progressively younger rather than older. The younger dates were not mentioned or discussed in the abstract or in the poster session.
GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE NEWS
Clausen Attends American Physical Society Meetings
April 20-24, Dr. Ben Clausen attended the American Physical Society meetings in Washington, D.C., where he presented a paper on some pion scattering research. This series of meetings included the presentations on the variation in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation that created such a sensation in the news. [Ed. Note: An article dealing with the Big Bang Theory is planned for publication in Origins.] Dr. Clausen spent the following week in nuclear physics consultation at the University of Virginia.
Kennedy Speaks at Florida Camp Meeting
May 25-29, Dr. Elaine Kennedy presented a series of lectures on Creation and the Noachian Flood. Discussion was lively all week. As a result of the meetings the Florida Conference has arranged for all of its pastors to receive Geoscience Reports.
Gibson Attends American Society of Mammalogists Meetings
June 14-18, Dr. Jim Gibson attended the American Society of Mammalogists meetings in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Gibson presented a poster session entitled "Estimating Biogeographic Divisions of Australian Mammals Using Faunal Turnover and Similarity Indices." The poster stimulated some interesting discussion regarding biogeographic methods. One doctoral student was particularly interested in the possibility of applying Park to Grand Canyon National Park was Dr. Gibson's approach to lizard distributions. Dr. Gibson will be exploring biogeographic methods further in the coming months.
BRISCO
From August 5-11 the members and invitees of the Biblical Research Institute Science Committee in the Calgary/Banff area. Meetings this year focused on two topics: "Teaching Philosophy of Science" and "The Cambrian Explosion." A highlight of the meeting was the presentation of the long-awaited paper by Dr. Gerhard Hasel entitled "Watering the Antediluvian World: Mist, River, Flood, High Water, or Rain?" Dr. Hasel's lecture provided new insights for those scientists addressing the issue of pre-flood sedimentation. Other highlights included field trips prepared and conducted by Dr. Harold Coffin to the dinosaur displays at the Royal Tyrrell Museum in Drumheller, the Burgess Shale on Mt. Stephens and at Wolcott Quarry, Mt. Field/Mt. Wapta ridge. The bonus for those making the 12-mile trek to the Wolcott Quarry was meeting and examining the latest finds of Dr. Desmond H. Collins, Curator, Dept. Invertebrate Paleontology, Royal Ontario Museum.
GRI Field Conference
From August 12-25 the GRI conducted a Field Conference for SDA World Division leaders and educators, including several university and college presidents. The geology from Yellowstone National Park to Grand Canyon National Park was studied and discussed. Field localities included study of the "fossil forests" at Specimen Creek in Yellowstone National Park, tour of the Madison River area affected by the Hebgen earthquake of August 17, 1959; and discussion of the Heart Mountain detachment fault, formation of the Wind River Mountains,
Wind River basin and basin fill, in Wyoming. In Utah, attention was focused on the deposition and erosion of the Colorado Plateau. Participants stopped at Dinosaur National Monument, collected clinker, "worm tubes" and
Gryphea during subsequent stops, examined coal beds and a turbidite sequence, and toured Capital Reef National Park, stopping to discuss the Moenkopi/Shinarump conglomerate contact. Before leaving Utah, time was spent in the study of elastic (coarse sandstone) pipes located in Kodachrome Basin. The focus of our time spent in Arizona was the geology of the Grand Canyon. The depositional and erosional history of the Canyon was addressed, along with pertinent sedimentologic and paleontologic issues. In addition to the numerous lectures given by the GRI staff, some very special individuals joined us at specific localities: Elders Robert Folkenberg and Neal Wilson (present and past presidents, respectively, of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists) addressed the group, as well as two scientists, Drs. Leonard Brand and Arthur Chadwick Dr. William Shea from the Biblical Research Institute discussed the
Genesis account of beginnings.
The field conference served to increase our worldwide church leaders' awareness of the complexity of the scientific issues as they pertain to the fundamental beliefs of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. It also provided scientific evidence for a recent creation and a worldwide flood as described in the Bible.
Teaching Assignments
Drs. Gibson and Kennedy each spent time with Dr. Gordon Atkins' Philosophy of Biology class last May. Dr. Gibson lectured on speciation and mammal biogeography, and Dr. Kennedy discussed the geologic column. Gibson and Kennedy particularly enjoyed the opportunity to visit with the Andrews faculty.
Dr. Kennedy also taught the course "Field Interpretations in Historical Geology" for the Natural Sciences department at LLU in September. The course is scheduled to be taught every two years.
Roth Headed for Australia
Dr. Ariel Roth will be in Australia this October laying the groundwork for 2 field conferences to be held in Australia and New Zealand for the South Pacific Division leaders and workers, January 7 - February 3, 1993.
Change of Plans for Teachers' Conference
The North American Division Secondary Science Teachers' Conference will be held in Flagstaff, Arizona, July 12-22. The conference was originally scheduled in Kanab, Utah. The decision to change the location was based largely on two factors: 1) the less-expensive accommodations available in Flagstaff, and 2) a desire to include some new field sites rather than limiting the sites to the same localities visited previously. For additional information, secondary-school science teachers should contact Dr. Gerry Thompson, Education Department, Pacific Union Conference of SDA, P.O. Box 5005, Westlake Village, CA 91359.
Geoscience Reports
Fall 1992 No. 15
Editor - M. Elaine Kennedy
Associate Editor - Katherine Ching
Subscription requests, correspondence, and notices of change of address should be sent to: Geoscience Reports, Geoscience Research Institute, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 USA Annual subscription rate is $3.00 (U.S. currency).
Geoscience Reports is a newsletter published by the Geoscience Research Institute to present current happenings at the Institute as well as general-interest articles that deal with creation/evolution issues for elementary/secondary-school and college science classes. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute.
Staff of the Institute: Ariel A. Roth, Director (Ph.D, zoology); Ben L. Clausen (Ph.D., nuclear physics); L. Jim Gibson (Ph.D., biology); M. Elaine Kennedy (Ph.D., geology); Clyde L. Webster, (Ph.D, chemistry); Katherine Ching, Editor M.A., history); and Janet Williams, Administrative Secretary.