GEOSCIENCE REPORTS
Spring 1992, No. 14
CHAOS IN PHYSICS
Benjamin L. Clausen, Geoscience Research Institute
New developments in science that come under the general heading of "chaos" have been described as revolutionary and the basis for a genuinely new paradigm. It has brought about the realization that instead of understanding most of nature in principle, science has really addressed only the very restricted subset of phenomena that can be analyzed by simple methods. Chaos has had a broad impact in diverse disciplines, influencing mechanics, astronomy, solid-state physics, ecology, meteorology, and biology, as a few examples. For those interested in a popular book on the subject, Chaos: Making a New Science (Gleick 1987) is probably the best, with Fractals in Your Future (Lewis 1991) being particularly appropriate for teaching high-school level students. At a slightly more advanced level is Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws: Minutes from an Infinite Paradise (Schroeder 1991).
Photos of the Mandelbrot Set (FRACTINT. PROGRAM), a classic example of chaos.
To understand the revolutionary nature of chaos requires some
history. In the 1600s Newton developed classical mechanics to
describe the motions of bodies in our solar system. In the 1800s
Laplace extended the ideas of classical mechanics to suggest
determinism — the motion of every body in the universe is
completely determined. As a result, "Universal, immutable laws,
absolute precision, and strict predictability were ideas that were
habitually believed to characterize science." Newtonian physics
assumed "that the initial data determine the future,
unambiguously, uniquely, and forever ... [and] that the qualitative
aspects of the motion are not too sensitive to the precise initial
data." Newton's laws could be solved exactly for 2 bodies, such as
the sun and the earth. For a system containing more than 2 bodies,
such as the earth-moon-sun system, accurate approximations were
used. More involved problems were — so was the common belief — only
technically different from the special examples. Newtonian physics
was a dramatic success in predicting the return of Halley's comet
in 1757 after its observation in 1682, and in predicting a new
planet (Neptune) based on the observed irregularities in the orbit
of Uranus. "These ideas were so successful and suggestive that
they stimulated the search for similar laws in all of physics (and
most of science)" (Dresden 1992).
Unfortunately, "the general attitude toward classical physics
was based on an uncritical, unanalyzed acceptance of the ideology
of Newtonian physics." "It is not clear whether physicists and
astronomers were aware of the tenuous mathematical basis of their
(often unspoken) beliefs, but it is pretty clear that they didn't
worry too much about it" (Dresden 1992). At the turn of the last
century, Poincare in his The New Methods of Celestial Mechanics
wondered about the stability of solar systems. He "discovered that
with even the very smallest perturbation, some orbits behaved in
an erratic, even chaotic way. This was true even for a closed
system, that should be particularly amenable to analysis by
classical mechanics. Quantum mechanics and the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle yielded indeterminacy in another area a few
years later, and Poincare's ideas were forgotten for a time.
"Small wonder, since even Poincare had abandoned the ideas,
saying, 'These things are so bizarre that I cannot bear to
contemplate them'" (Briggs & Peat 1989). Poincare's ideas have
only come to the forefront again in the last 15 years or so.
Now classical mechanics is being reevaluated. It has been
found that "properties were inferred from the detailed examination
of very few examples — maybe five or six altogether." "... all the
general features attributed to classical mechanics are in general
wrong. The exactly soluble examples are not generic; they are in
fact quite atypical." "... chaotic behavior, contrary to earlier
beliefs, was a rather general property and not a pathological
feature of some contrived system," and even relatively simple
systems can exhibit frightfully complex behavior (Dresden 1992).
For chaotic systems a slight imprecision results in
indeterminism. This slight imprecision may result from uncertainty
in the initial data, or from approximate calculations based on
perturbations of an exact solution. For such systems, predictive
errors develop exponentially with time and an initial, small
imprecision eventually results in total loss of predictability
(Davies 1990).
Examples of chaotic behavior are numerous. The famous
Butterfly Effect suggests "that a butterfly stirring the air today
in Peking can transform storm systems next month in New York"
(Gleick 1987). Population dynamics of rabbits can be affected in
unpredictable ways by small changes in food supply. Earthquakes,
snow avalanches, and dinosaur extinctions have been studied using
chaos methods. One simple example involved adding sand to a sand
pile on a 4 cm plate, one grain at a time. Sand avalanches would
occur after as few as one or as many as several thousand grains
were added to the pile. The addition of a sand grain would cause
an avalanche in unpredictable ways (Bak & Chen 1991).
Chaos theory brings attention to the fact that errors in
describing the future based on present approximate data in
classical mechanics develop exponentially with time. It is
possible that errors in extrapolation from present earth-history
data into the past also develop exponentially with time and
therefore, less is known about the past than previously realized.
Selected References
EDITORIAL
In staff meeting recently, we were reminiscing about a couple
of field conferences held some years ago. We suddenly realized
that most of our "memories" don't go back more than ten years.
Into this exchange someone interjected the question, "Do you see a
new day dawning here?" A new day dawning ... indeed, the increasing
demands of a growing, worldwide church are pushing us in new
directions.
During the past ten years our governing Board has mandated
that the staff spend a significant portion of its time doing
research. We struggle for time to do that much research because
for all of us, research is the truly fun part of our job.
During this same period, the church's request for more
readable scientific materials has sky-rocketed. Speaking
engagements demand understandable lectures that must be constantly
updated because new research continually changes our understanding
of scientific details.
This year marks the 10th anniversary of Ciencia de los
Origenes, our Spanish publication edited by David Rhys. Both
Ciencia and Geoscience Reports (first issued Winter, 1981) are
designed for non-scientists. In addition, our first video, Evidences: the Record and the
Flood, was produced in 1990 and made
available through the Adventist Book Centers. We've started a
second video about fossils and hope to produce more. We would like
to do a series of education lectures for our schools but limited
time and money overshadow all projects.
Branch offices have been established in Europe and South
America to meet the growing needs in those two areas of the world.
With many of the recent political changes, China, Russia and their
neighbors are exploding with opportunities and the church is
scrambling to redefine its role in those countries. Our Institute
has lectured on the issue of science and religion to the populace
and the scientific communities within Russia. We do indeed serve a
world church.
A new day is dawning and our outreach is broadening. We at
Geoscience are committed to continuing our service to our church
in research, lectures and publications. With scientific integrity
we will endeavor to communicate to the church the appropriate
interface of scientific and religious concepts. Certainly, there
is adequate scientific evidence to support the church's
interpretation of the Genesis accounts of creation and the flood.
Geoscience Research Institute plays a major role in our church's
search for truth, and we look forward to meeting the challenge of
our expanding outreach.
SCIENCE NEWSNOTES
Oil Generation and Migration Needs Water
Mike Lewan (USGS, Denver), the keynote speaker for the 8th Annual McKelvey Forum in Houston, Texas, urged listeners to include water in their models for oil generation and migration, because "Laboratory experiments show water to be a critical component in natural petroleum generation and expulsion" (Lewan 1992). The decomposition of kerogen, an insoluble hydrocarbon, to liquid oil is a two-step process that requires hydrogen ions, which are most readily supplied through the dissociation of water. A series of experiments were conducted at temperatures ranging from 300 to 365ºC for 72 hours. Extrapolation of the data to lower temperatures over a longer period of time indicated that results could be applied to source rocks in a subsiding basin (a region that is sinking as sediments are being deposited). Extrapolation of the data in this way is consistent with the current models that have been developed by geologists for the prediction of the processes responsible for oil generation. Migration of the oil upward from the fine-grained mudstones (referred to by geologists as "source rock") into the overlying sandstones ("reservoir rock") was facilitated by its natural buoyancy in water. In addition, the volume increase that occurs as oil is generated helps fracture the source rock, providing minute conduits for the oil's escape. The amount of oil generated by this process may be somewhat exaggerated, but a hydrated process is more similar to the natural subsurface environment than the dry methods currently used by geologists to simulate oil generation.
Diagram of oil generation and migration (modified from Lewan 1992).
It was previously reported in Geoscience Reports (No. 11) under "Science Newsnotes" that rapid natural production of crude oil was occurring in the Guaymas Basin in the Gulf of California, and it was assumed heat was a factor speeding up the generation process. The heat source was associated with rifts and vents. Organic-rich mudstones in a subsiding basin require longer time periods at lower temperatures in order to generate oil. Lewan's higher experimental temperatures may be closer to reality in the natural subsurface setting than expected if plate movements were more rapid in the past. Most important, however, is the role of water in the generation and migration of oil. [Lewan, M. D. 1992. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2007:12-15]
What's For Supper?
A cylindrical mass of organic material was found in the gut
area of skeletal remains of an almost full-grown, male Mastodon
(an extinct kind of elephant). The nearly complete skeleton was
recovered from a peat deposit in Licking County, Ohio. The
vegetation consisted of some unidentified varieties of swamp grass
with a matted mass of leaves, moss and nonconiferous twigs. Seeds
found in the sample are produced in late summer or early autumn by
modern species. Death is believed to have occurred at about that
season.
Gut contents were consistent with the pollen removed from the
Mastodon teeth, but differed from the peat entombing the carcass.
Mastodon had been previously identified as browsing animals with a
dietary preference for conifer twigs. This particular Mastodon
dined on predominantly low, herbaceous vegetation. The gut
contents implied a diet that was a mixture of browsing and grazing
habits.
A most striking discovery was five bacteria cultured from the
gut sample. The peat sample contained bacteria expected
independent of a mammal carcass. The gut sample contained
Enterobacter cloacae, a bacterium commonly found in the intestinal
tracts of modern animals. E. cloacae was not found in the peat.
The bacteria are believed to be survivors or descendants of the
intestinal microflora of the Mastodon This is the first time living
bacteria have been recovered from large, Late Pleistocene (about 1 million years ago according to evolutionary theory) mammals.
[Lepper et al. 1991. Quaternary Research 36:120-125]
Saving An Organism For Fossilization
For years theories have been advanced in the scientific
literature regarding conditions necessary for the fossilization of
organisms. It seems that once an organism dies, it either decays
or is quickly scavenged (Allison & Briggs 1991). Both processes
contribute to the disarticulation of the organism. In fact, in
order for skeletons to remain articulated during transport, the
ligaments must remain relatively intact (Allison & Briggs 1991).
How then is it possible for so many fossils to have formed? Modern-
day processes do not offer much insight into mechanisms for
fossilization.
Scavenging removes dead organisms from a well-oxygenated
environment. In addition, scavenging occurs in dysaerobic (low
oxygen) environments (Smith 1985). According to Allison & Briggs
(1991):
Scavenging can only he prevented if the carcass is deposited in an inhospitable environment characterized, for example, by catastrophic burial or anoxia.
Anoxia (lack of free oxygen in the environment) has been favored in the literature as an environment conducive to the preservation of fossils when the process is believed to have occurred over an extended period of time. However, even though anoxia may inhibit scavengers, it does not really seem to enhance potential for preservation. Kidwell & Baumiller (1990), in their study of echinoid (sea urchin) decay, state:
... specimens that were first allowed to decay for two days in warm seawater (30°C) disintegrated more than six times faster than specimens treated at room temperature (23°C) and more than an order of magnitude faster than specimens treated in cool water (11°C). In contrast, the effects of aerobic versus anerobic [sic] decay on disintegration rates were insignificant.
Certainly, anaerobic bacteria (organisms living in the absence of
free oxygen) play an important role in the decay of any organism
deposited in anoxic bottom waters; thus, anoxia alone will not
insure preservation. It seems likely that delayed decay in cool,
anoxic waters should occur in terms of days or weeks but certainly
not in terms of years.
The primary processes that seem to be responsible for
preservation of organisms are catastrophic burial and cool
temperatures in anoxic waters (Allison & Briggs 1991; Kidwell &
Baumiller 1990). The quality of preservation depends on how
rapidly the organism is mineralized (Allison & Briggs 1991).
Quality ranges from molds (impressions) of the organism to a
detailed cell-by-cell replacement.
Examples of two types of fossilization. A. Dinosaur tracks (Glenrose, Texas). B: Plant root with cellular preservation (Florissant, Colorado).
More and more frequently in the geologic literature, fossils are associated with storm deposits, areas of rapid sedimentation, and turbidites (rapidly moving, rapidly deposited underwater flows of mud, silt and/or sand). Catastrophic conditions seem to be the norm for fossilization to occur. This scenario fits well with the biblical concept of a major, worldwide flood responsible for the destruction and burial of many forms of life. [(a) Allison, P. A. & D. E. G. Briggs. 1991. Taphonomy. Plenum Press, New York. 560 pp.; (b) Kidwell, S. M. & T. Baumiller. 1990. Paleobiology 16:247-271; (c) Smith, C. R. 1985. Deep Sea Research 32:417-442.]
CURRENT GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH
Ben Clausen is busy with data analysis of sulfur-32 and
magnesiurn-26 pion scattering experiments. (Pions are one of the
subatomic particles that hold the nucleus together.) Later this
year he plans to assist with an experiment using proton scattering
on sulfur-32 at the Indiana University Cyclotron Facility and
possibly assist on a positive kaon scattering experiment at
Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York. [Kaons consist of
"strange" quarks as well as the usual "up" and "down" quarks. Kaon
decay violates parity (symmetry) conservation.]
Jim Gibson is developing a computerized method to analyze
mammal distribution patterns in order to determine biogeographic
provinciality of mammals. He is using Australian mammals as a
sample group to develop a protocol. He has completed the
distributional data entry on a grid of 100 km and is
currently entering the data on a grid of 150 km in order to
compare the results and determine the degree of uncertainty
acceptable in the data.
Elaine Kennedy is collaborating with Dr. Art Chadwick at
Southwestern Adventist College. They are endeavoring to determine
the environment of deposition for the Tapeats Sandstone, Grand
Canyon, Arizona. Current research indicates a more complex history
for the deposition of the Tapeats than has been previously
reported, including storm-related deposition in an embayment and
rapid deposition in deep water.
Ariel Roth is writing a book tentatively titled A Synthesis
of Secular Science and Sacred Scripture. The book is written for
the educated non-scientist and is intended to bring into focus the
pertinent facts of the conflict between science and the Bible.
Clyde Webster is preparing for publication his research on
the trace-element signatures for the organic zones in the "fossil
forests" of Specimen Creek, Yellowstone National Park.
CHANGE OF PERSONNEL
M. Elaine Kennedy
July saw a change at GRI in its personnel. Dr. Harold G.
Coffin retired after 27 years with GRI at the end of June, and Dr.
M. Elaine Kennedy joined GRI on July 1.
Elaine Kennedy completed her Bachelor's degree in Geology at
Phillips University, Enid, Oklahoma, in 1981. One Bachelor's
degree was not enough so she returned to Phillips and completed a
second Bachelor's degree in Teaching Sciences in 1985. She
completed her Master's degree in Geology at the La Sierra Campus
of Loma Linda University in 1987 and her Ph.D. in Geology at
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, in
1991.
Besides spending most of her life in school, Elaine taught
Life and Earth
Science classes for 7th and 8th graders in the Enid Public School
System for two years before pursuing graduate studies.
She is presently working on the Tapeats Sandstone in Grand
Canyon, Arizona, with Dr. Arthur Chadwick, Biology Department
Chairman, Southwestern Adventist College in Keene, Texas. In
addition, Elaine is working on the sulfur content of the Cereza
Peak Member mudstones from Ridge Basin, Southern California. She
serves on the SEPM (Society of Sedimentary Geology) K-12 Earth
Science Education Committee and has published an article titled
"Lectures for High School Students" in the committee's publication
A SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGISTS' GUIDE TO HELPING K-12 EARTH SCIENCE
TEACHERS. Hints, Ideas, Activities, and Resources. Elaine
currently serves as editor for the Committee's articles submitted
to the SEPM NEWS.
Elaine is married to Dee Kennedy and has two daughters,
Shelley, age 18, and Ami, age 16. Coming to GRI is the fulfillment
of a dream that has been shared by Elaine and Harold for almost 20
years.
GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE NEWS
GRI Staff Travels Last Fall
The last two weeks in August, Ben Clausen and Ariel Roth spoke at the Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary in Zaokski, Russia. In September and October, Clyde Webster co-taught with Dr. John Baldwin (Andrews University) a course on Science and Religion at Helderberg College, South Africa. During part of October and November, Ariel Roth lectured in Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, South Korea and Japan. Mid-November through mid- December, Jim Gibson taught theology students at four SDA schools: Bogenhofen, Austria; Saleve, France; Friedensau and Marienhohe, Germany. From December 7-18, Drs. Gibson, Roth and Webster presented papers at the Second International Creation Conference at Newbold College, England. Drs. Roth and Webster then traveled to the Netherlands for another creation conference. During their travels the men took advantage of some of the University libraries for literature research and arranged some travel time for field research as well.
Kennedy In Oregon/British Columbia
From January 6-13, Elaine Kennedy lectured at the Oregon Pastors' Conference in Portland, discussed scientific principles in three biology classes at the Portland Adventist Academy; then flew to British Columbia to spend two days with Fraser Valley Adventist Academy and three days with the Abbotsford Adventist Church. Her lecture series titles included: "Evidences for a Short Chronology"; "Rising Waters, Rising Hopes: the Noachian Flood" (a presentation of the geologic column, ecological zonation and the flood); "Genesis: the Creator Speaks to a Scientist" (Elaine's personal testimony); "Is That Data?" (an exercise in the differences between data and interpretation); "Science: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow" (a discussion on the changing nature of scientific theories and their impacts on theology); "California Sunshine: the Antediluvian World" (a comparison of the geologic record to modern depositional systems).
Clausen & Rhys In Bolivia
From January 17-21, Ben Clausen and David Rhys presented a
series of lectures on Science and Religion at the Bolivia
Adventist University near Cochabamba, Bolivia. Of the 183 people
attending the "First University Retreat for Students and
Professionals," 61 were professionals. Ben's lectures included:
"Introduction to the Relation between Science and Religion" (a
lecture regarding the ways Christianity has aided the development
of science); "Order and Chaos in Nature" (a physicist's argument
for and concept of Design in nature); Limitations of Science" (a
lecture loosely based on Kuhn's book, The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions, using 2 examples from physics - quantum mechanics and
relativity); "Introduction to Radiometric Dating" (how scientists
use it); and "Questions on Radiometric Dating" (based on Ben's
questions regarding the validity of the method).
On the following Sabbath, Ben and David participated in the
worship services at Cusco, Peru. For a youth program on Sabbath
afternoon, they spent 4 hours answering questions about creation
and the flood.
Gibson At Weimar
From March 1-2, Jim Gibson taught 5 classes at Weimar Institute, California, for John Baker's "Science and Creation" course, which is required for students majoring in Pastoral Ministry. Jim's lectures included: "Are There Natural Limits to Change in Species?" (a discussion of change in species versus progression of species); "Fossils: Evidence for Continuity? " (a study of transitional forms/missing links); "Do Molecules Tell Time?" (an examination of the molecular-clock hypothesis); "Patterns of Mammal Distribution" (an exploration of current biogeographic distributions); and "Some Characteristics of the Worldwide Flood" (evidences for short chronology, flood deposition, and meteorite impacts).
Looking To The Future
The Biblical Research Institute Science Council (BRISCO)
meets August 5-11. This year the meetings will be focused on the
teaching of science and religion classes at SDA colleges. The
BRISCO members and invitees will spend most of the week in Canmore
and Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The field work will emphasize the
geology and paleontology of the Drumheller/Banff area, with field
trips planned to Drumheller, the Burgess Shale, and possibly, the Saskatchewan Glacier.
The 1992 Field Conference for the Seventh-day Adventist World
Division Leaders, University and College Presidents is scheduled
for August 12-25. The field trip will focus on the Colorado
Plateau.
During January 7-20 and January 21 - February 3, 1993, field
conferences will be conducted in Australia and New Zealand for
South Pacific Division leaders and workers. Educators will be
invited to attend the first trip; administrators and pastors will
be invited for the second conference.
The North American Division Secondary Science Teachers'
Conference convenes July 13-23, 1993, in Kanab, Utah. Field trips
scheduled for the area include the Grand Canyon, Bryce and Zion
National Parks, plus the Paria and Long Valleys. The region has
the most completely exposed stratigraphic sequence of the geologic
record in the world. Some opportunities to collect rock and fossil
samples for classroom use have been scheduled during trips outside
the national parks. For additional information, secondary-school
science teachers should contact the Education Department of the
General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, 12501 Old Columbia
Pike, Silver Spring, MD 20904 U.S.A.
TRIBUTE
Harold G. Coffin
On June 28, 1991, Harold G. Coffin officially retired from
the Geoscience Research Institute. We have all felt his absence at
GRI. Harold and Emma have retired to The Dalles, Oregon, where
their lovely home (complete with a hot tub!) has a gorgeous view
of Mt. Hood. Fortunately, the Coffins have been able to travel to
Southern California occasionally, and we look forward to each
visit with them.
Harold completed his B.A. in Biology at Walla Walla College,
Washington, in 1947. Continuing his education there, he completed
his Master's degree in 1952. Three years later he completed a
Ph.D. in Zoology at the University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, California. Such a fast-paced degree program in the pre-
computer days is certainly impressive, and Emma's typing skills
were honed during that period. During his graduate work at USC,
Harold was appointed a Research Fellow through the Allen Hancock
Foundation.
For five years Harold taught biology at Canadian Union
College and later served as its Chairman for the Division of
Science. In 1956 he returned to Walla Walla to serve as Associate
Professor of Biology and became the department's Chairman two
years later. His dual role as professor and Chair continued for 6
years.
In 1964 Harold accepted a position as a research scientist at
Geoscience Research Institute, then located at Andrews University,
Michigan. In 1980 Harold moved with the Institute from Andrews
University to Loma Linda University, California.
Harold maintains memberships in the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, the Geological Society of America, and
Sigma Xi. His articles have been published in the Geological
Society of America Bulletin, Journal of Paleontology, Geology,
Palaios, Creation Research Society Quarterly, Origins, and various
church journals. He has authored or coauthored six books: Trails Unlimited,
Creation: Accident or Design?, Earth Story, Fossils in Focus,
Dinosaurs and Origin by Design.
Over the past 25 years Harold and many other Seventh-day
Adventist scientists have worked diligently on the Yellowstone
fossil "forests" project in an effort to understand the geologic
history of the numerous layers of upright fossil stumps. Many
scientists contributed pieces to the puzzle. Harold's research in
the Specimen Creek area, Yellowstone National Park, and in Spirit
Lake, Mt. St. Helens, are landmark studies. The modern analog that
Harold developed from his Spirit Lake research and applied to his
transport model for the Yellowstone fossil "forests" effectively
refuted the arguments for successive forests living and dying in
place over an extended period of time.
At present, Harold is very busy with a full schedule of
Creation Seminars in the Oregon Conference, and he has plans to
write books about creation and the flood for non-scientists.
Harold is still called upon by GRI for special assignments. We
appreciate his willingness to join us for conferences and field
trips. We wish Harold and Emma a happy, healthy and prosperous
retirement.
GEOSCIENCE REPORTS
Spring 1992 No. 14
Editor - M. Elaine Kennedy
Associate Editor - Katherine Ching
Subscription requests, correspondence, and notices of change of address should be sent to: Geoscience Reports, Geoscience Research Institute, Lorna Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 U.S.A. Annual subscription rate is $3.00 (U.S. currency).
Geoscience Reports is a newsletter published by the Geoscience Research Institute to present current happenings at the Institute as well as general interest articles that deal with creation/evolution issues for elementary/secondary-school and college science classes. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute.
Staff of the Institute: Ariel A. Roth, Director (Ph.D., zoology); Ben L. Clausen (Ph.D., nuclear physics); L. Jim Gibson (Ph.D., biology); M. Elaine Kennedy (Ph.D., geology); Clyde L. Webster, (Ph.D., chemistry); Katherine Ching, Editor (M.A., history); and Janet Williams, Administrative Secretary.