GEOSCIENCE REPORTS
Summer 1989 No. 9
TRANSITIONAL FOSSILS - STILL MISSING
The theory of evolution promotes the view that living organisms
began three or more billion years ago and increased gradually in diversity and complexity
since that beginning. The most widely held position claims that the numerous steps leading
to increased complexity were small. Thus many connecting links would be necessary to lead
from a fish to an amphibian, for instance. According to the theory of creation, God
created complex living organisms that have not undergone major change with time.
Both evolution and creation are theories. They are not subject to
compulsive proof. Faith is a prerequisite for accepting either theory. A good theory has
predictive value. It should suggest additional observations and experiments. If these
finer observations and experiments give supporting results, the theory is strengthened and
scientists have increased confidence in its validity.
Here is a comparison of two contrasting predictions concerning fossils
arising from the theories of evolution and creation.
EVOLUTION - Prediction:
Any specific group of organisms will reveal in the fossil record
step-by-step transitional changes from simple to complex with decreasing geologic age.
CREATION - Prediction:
Any specific group of organisms will reveal no trend in the fossil
record toward more complex forms, with; decreasing geologic age.
Worldwide Flood
Seventh-day Adventists believe that most fossils are evidences of a worldwide flood only a few thousands of years ago. In this article we often refer to geologic time, not to promote its validity but to show the problems for evolution theory that exist within its own world view.
Fossils Valuable
William Smith (1769-1839) was the first person to clearly recognize the value of fossils in identifying strata. At the age of eighteen he began working as a surveyor and canal builder. On the basis of fossils, especially sea shells and ammonites (coiled shells of animals related to squids and octopuses), he was able to correlate strata from various areas of England. He was the first to prepare colored geologic maps. Other geologists followed his lead and used fossils to correlate rock strata in other parts of the world. Thus stratigraphy became an established subdivision of the science of geology.
Observations Possible
Smith's observations are now understood to be possible because
animals and plants in various stages of evolutionary development were buried over a period
involving many millions of years. The early stages of evolution would be lower down
(buried first) and the more highly evolved forms higher up (buried later). The orderly
sequence of fossils in the earth is now used as a strong argument for evolution.
According to the creation theory, most sedimentary rocks were produced
from sediments laid down in a short time by a worldwide flood and the fossils found within
them represent the vast array of organisms, both complex and simple, created by God
earlier. Their predictable vertical sequence as fossils reflects the elevations of the
habitats in which they lived along with some other factors such as mobility and flotation.
Fossils of marine invertebrates first appear in older, lower rocks.
Above them, fish, reptiles and mammals next appear, successively in that order. Because
millions of years are thought to be involved in the laying down of these beds, this
progression from invertebrates, to fish, to reptiles, to mammals, is said to demonstrate
the evolution of animals. This sequence looks like a fulfilling of the prediction derived
from evolution theory. But what are the results if we examine the fossil record of
specific groups of organisms?
Earth's crust
The scientific literature often contains articles that extend the
range of some plant or animal farther down into the earth's sedimentary crust. These new
finds are often claimed to be more simple or to show features that link them to supposed
older and simpler ancestors. To a non-biologist these claims may seem convincing. However,
the trained biologist or paleontologist notes that the differences described are minor and
do not indicate a less complex ancestor.
First let us look at some examples from the fossil record of plants. A
petrified conifer cone containing seeds with embryos was reported in the Permian of West
Texas (Miller and Brown, 1973). Previously seeds with embryos had not been found below the
Mesozoic. The sequence of embryo growth in these seeds is said by the authors to be
"typical of most modern seed plants...." Thus this discovery has pushed
modern-type growth of embryos in conifers down into the Paleozoic. These seeds do not show
transitional evolution from simpler forms even though they are thought to be considerably
older than previous discoveries.
Dicotyledonous Angiosperms
Another reference extends the range of dicotyledonous angiosperms
into the Lower Cretaceous (Crane et al., 1986). According to the evolutionary time scale,
this is six million years older than the previous record. These are true flowering plants
that have two parts to the seed like peanuts or beans. Here again the older fossils do not
reveal any evolving of plants from simple to complex. Rather they merely extend the same
complex forms farther down into the fossil record.
Trees of giant club mosses have been found in Devonian rocks said to be
350 million years old. According to evolutionary theory, they must have evolved from
smaller and simpler ancestors. Instead, it seems that lycopod trees suddenly appear mature
and large in the fossil record.
Bacteria
Before examining the fossil record of animals, we look at a group that some consider neither plant nor animal — bacteria. Fossil bacteria found in salt beds of Mesozoic, Paleozoic and even Precambrian ages are similar to modern brine dwelling bacteria. These fossil bacteria are truly living fossils because they have been found by scientists, both in North America and Europe, to be alive (Reiser and Tisch, 1960; Dombrowski, 1963). Because they can be cultured, biochemical tests have been run on them. The results suggest that they may have possessed abilities that their modern relatives have lost.
Bacteria alive
That these bacteria are alive after hundreds of millions of years is
beyond belief for most geologists. Even creationists, who consider the flood, when these
bacteria were likely buried, to be only a few thousand years ago, are surprised.
Contamination has been used to argue against the validity of these results but carefully
controlled tests seem to rule out this possibility.
Although the antiquity of these living bacteria is of interest to us,
our primary concern in this article relates to their similarity to modern brine bacteria.
From the standpoint of geological time these organisms take the record for maintaining
identity — 600 million years or more!
The same interesting results are found for animal fossils. A beautiful
little squid fossil of the genus Eoteuthis was found buried in fine sediments
containing sulphur compounds and iron which eventually formed iron pyrite (Stürmer,
1985). The impregnation of pyrite into the fossil caused it to become opaque to x-rays and
to produce a good radiograph. The burial and preservation of the animal must have been
rapid because of the good condition of the tissues and fine details. Eight or nine
tentacles around the head are visible and some of the tentacles show small dots that are
probably suckers. The jaws and the radula (rough tongue) also can be seen. This fossil
squid has a body plan much like that of the living squid Alloteuthis. Harland's
classic reference (1967) shows this family to range only to the Lower Jurassic. Thus its
position in Lower Devonian supposedly extends its range approximately 200 million years
farther into the past.
No aid
This fossil gives no aid for understanding the evolution of squids.
The author, W. Stürmer of West Germany, where the quarry is located, says, "This
specimen of E. elfriedae shows that Alloteuthis-like animals have not
changed much over the past 400 Myr [million years], and means that previous concepts of
the appearance of such forms must be revised" (Stürmer, 1985).
The Santana Formation in Northeast Brazil has become famous for its
fossil fish. Calcareous nodules in this formation contain fish that often are remarkably
preserved and may still be three dimensional. From the gills of these fossil fish,
parasitic copepods have been obtained that even reveal details of appendages and
mouthparts (Bate, 1972). Although they may be somewhat intermediate between two orders of
Copepoda, they are clearly copepods and they are not simple.
Oldest fossil
Previous to this discovery, oldest fossil copepods were from the
Miocene, 10 to 20 million years ago. These were free-living. The parasitic copepods from
the Santana Formation are Lower Cretaceous, considered to be approximately 100 million
years old. Parasitic copepods would have come from free-living forms originally (both
evolutionists and creationists agree on this point). In this case copepod evolution has
been pushed back at least 80 million years. Because fossil copepods older than Lower
Cretaceous have not been collected, time of the evolutionary origination of copepods is
not known. It would be safe to predict that if older copepod fossils are eventually found
they will differ little from their modern representatives because there has been no
evolving of copepods from some other kind of animal.
A newly reported fossil site in Wisconsin is unusual because of the
good preservation of a large number of different animals, many of which are soft-bodied
(Mikulic, Griggs, and Kluessendorf, 1985). These fossils are in the Silurian Period, below
the Devonian in which was located the fossil squid described above. Several types of
animals found here are well below their previous known limits. Crustaceans of the order
Concavicarida are extended from Early Devonian to Silurian (40 million additional years).
Leeches (Hirudinea) were not known below Upper Jurassic until discovered here in
Wisconsin. The range of this animal is extended approximately 270 million years according
to the evolutionary time scale. Again no transitional forms from simpler ancestors are
seen.
A small insect fossil found on the Gaspe Peninsula of Quebec, Canada,
has been identified by scientists at the University of Chicago as a silverfish. Visible
compound eyes, antennae, mouth parts and musculature reveal it to be little changed from
its modern counterparts. Its complexity and modern appearance force evolutionists to move
the supposed origin of insects 15 million years farther back in time. Based on geologic
time, silverfish have remained relatively unchanged for close to 400 million years.
Animals with four legs suitable for walking on land were evolved from
sea animals according to the theory of evolution. This transition would have involved more
than the development of legs. The skin must change to resist desiccation; gills must
change to lungs; eyes must adapt to see through air, not water; eggs, if laid on land,
must have some protecting shell, and many other features must be modified for life to
exist on land.
Tetrapod trackways
Warren and Wakefield (1972) report the discovery of trackways of
tetrapod vertebrates from the Upper Devonian of Victoria, Australia. Previous oldest
unquestioned tetrapod tracks are from the Carboniferous approximately 80 million years
later as based on the geologic time scale. There are three track ways that clearly show
both front and hind feet and toes. Surprisingly, one of the track ways does not show any
body or tail drag, which means that while walking the animal was holding its body off the
ground like most modern mammals and unlike modern amphibians and reptiles.
Finally, mention should be made of fossil bird remains that have
challenged the popular interpretation of Archaeopteryx. The gap between reptiles and birds
is a big one, and search for connecting links between the two has been intense.
Archaeopteryx his long been promoted as a good connecting link by many students of fossil
vertebrates, although some have disagreed. This unusual fossil has generated much recent
controversy (Refer to Science Newsnotes). The claim that it is a good fink between
reptiles and birds is now open to serious question because fossil bones of modern-type
birds have been found in beds lower than those in which Archaeopteryx were found. In other
words, the range of modern-type birds has been extended back millions of years before
Archaeopteryx. This obviously discounts the claims that it was one of the transitional
steps.
Examples
Numerous examples of this kind could be given but these are sufficient to illustrate my point — fossils do not show a trend toward simpler transitional forms with increased geologic age. The theory of evolution has not given correct predictions of step-by-step increase in complexity. Instead, ancient and modern plants and animals fall into distinct kinds and categories with no links between. A few, like Archaeopteryx and Eohippus, have been promoted, but these are rare and questionable. The picture given by the fossils is that of a sudden appearance of complex and fully developed organisms.
Various theories
Because the fossil record does not support well the standard
evolutionary scheme, various theories have been proposed to solve the problem. A recent
one is called punctuated equilibria. Evolution is said to have taken place in small
semi-isolated populations that moved ahead by spurts too fast for individuals to leave
behind a noticeable fossil record.
The facts speak for themselves. Further assumptions and/or exceptions
should not be necessary to force agreement between evolutionary theory and the facts of
paleontology. The fossil record does not support the major prediction arising from the
theory of evolution.
Agreement
The sudden appearance of new groups and the lack of transitional forms are in good agreement with the prediction derived from the creation theory.
REFERENCES
BOOK REVIEW
McCann, Lester J. 1986. Blowing the whistle on Darwinism. Published by the author. 305 E. Main St., Waconia, MN 55387. 134p.
The quality of antievolution publications has been poor. Those of us
who attempt to keep abreast of such writings may become somewhat skeptical, especially
concerning privately published volumes. In this case my first reaction was to think that
the author published it himself because no other publisher would accept it.
If McCann had difficulty finding a publisher, it was not because the
volume did not meet publication standards. It is one of the better small volumes dealing
with the problems of the evolution theory. The author has a doctor of philosophy degree
from the University of Utah. For more than thirty years he has taught biology at the
College of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minnesota. His publications have been mostly in areas of
ecology and natural history of wildlife.
McCann presents a good critique of evolution as a theory. He begins
with Darwin and the rise of evolution. However his best chapters deal with the origin of
life, the origin of species, and the role of chance in evolution. His discussion of the
Law of Mass Action (the likelihood of reversible reactions undoing any increased molecular
complexity) was refreshing. This problem is seldom mentioned by those who favor the chance
origin of life and its protoplasmic constituents.
This publication is not a heavy scientific treatise that only
mathematicians or geneticists could follow. It is aimed at the educated layman, although
secondary and college science teachers would also benefit from reading it. In fact it
could be used as supplementary reading for science students of upper level high school as
well as college. The material is sound and most old hackneyed arguments against evolution
are refreshingly absent. In a few cases I was annoyed by his use of colloquial and slang
expressions.
Critique
This volume is a critique of evolution; it is not a promotion of creationism. It strongly suggests that evolution is a theory that was flawed from the beginning and should be abandoned, but the author makes little attempt to suggest what correct theory or philosophy should take its place. This is a volume that could be used in public school science classes because McCann does not defend creationism and makes no use of scripture or religious views. Blowing the Whistle on Darwinism would be helpful in giving students a more balanced understanding of the theory of evolution. I do not hesitate to recommend it to the readers of Geoscience Reports.
MAY I ASK A QUESTION?
Could the flood have consisted of rain and snow? If this was so, then that would explain how the dinosaurs were frozen instantly with the grass still in their mouths and the snow covered them and preserved them for our understanding of the flood from Noah's day?
In the Bible the expression "the deep" (see Genesis 7: 11 and 8:2) usually refers to the ocean or the ocean depths. My personal opinion is that most of the water of the Genesis Flood came from the oceans or from the depths of the Earth. Breakup of the Earth's crust allowed the ocean waters to spill over the continents. Even if a vapor envelope existed above the Earth (a speculative idea) which condensed and came down during the Flood, only a few feet of water would be the result. The atmosphere has a limited holding capacity for water vapor.
No Dinosaurs
Mammoths (not dinosaurs) are found frozen in the north. But authentic records of only two dozen or less are available. The story that thousands of elephants were frozen in the ice in the north is printed in various sources but this story is not true. The elephants that are found were caught in frozen peat bogs where they became mired. The plants found in their stomachs were cold climate plants, not tropical (another untruth often printed). It seems clear that they lived after the Flood. Many good evidences of the Genesis Flood are available, but the frozen mammoths should not be included among them.
SCIENCE NEWS NOTES
Lunar Cycles in Sediments
Many sedimentary beds are cyclic. This means that the stratum or
formation has horizontal bands (color, grain size, organic content, etc.) that are
repeated one or more times. These cycles often have been considered to be evidence of
variations in sedimentation rates between summer and winter. For instance, summer warmth
causes glaciers to melt more rapidly with resulting greater input of coarse sediments into
the drainage basin. Winter cold slows or stops the water flow from glaciers with resulting
deposition of small quantities of fine sediments. In time a series of alternating bands of
coarse and fine material (often called varves) would be laid down. Varves of this
derivation are obviously annual. In some cases a sequence of alternating zones in a
stratum has been credited to sunspot influence. In such a situation there would be two
series of cycles, annually laid cycles and sunspot influenced cycles superimposed on the
annual cycles.
A proposal is now being made that certain dark bands in an Australian
Precambrian stratum separated by 11.6 light bands (on the average), are the result of
tidal activity in a small bay or estuary. Tidal rising and lowering of water has also been
credited with influencing cyclic deposition for certain Carboniferous beds.
Important Discovery
If this suggestion becomes firmly established and more examples are found, an important geological phenomenon will have been discovered that could cause major changes in temporal interpretations. Some cyclic strata would thus be the result of daily tidal activity with increased deposition from bimonthly high tides superimposed over the daily cycles. Thus the time needed for the formation of a stratum or a formation would be reduced from many years to many days.
Suggested Reading:
Another Archaeopteryx Discovered
One of the world's most famous fossils is Archaeopteryx, the supposed intermediate (missing link) between reptiles and birds. There are now six specimens — a new one being found or rediscovered recently.
Feathered Reptile
These fossils show a reptile-like creature with feathers. It is reptile-like because of a long rat-like tail, anterior appendages terminating in claws, dinosaur-like pelvic and pectoral girdles, and socketed teeth. Indeed, some of these six specimens were originally classified as Compsognathus, a small dinosaur. Feathers are distinctive of birds, of course, and consequently, the presence of impressions of feathers forced their reclassification to birds. The feather impressions are totally modern in appearance; hence the paradox — strongly reptile-like skeleton but totally bird-like feathers.
Questions
In recent years some scientists, especially Sir Fred Hoyle and
Chandra Wickramasinghe, have questioned the authenticity of Archaeopteryx.
Surprisingly, the suggestion that this "bird" is a hoax is not new. Its
discovery around the middle of the 1800's caused much controversy and several leading
scientists, including Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley, had serious reservations about it.
Some of the points raised against its genuineness are as follows: 1.
The first two specimens were found soon after the publication of Darwin's The Origin
of Species and after speculations as to what reptile-bird intermediates would look
like. 2. All the specimens were found in one location only, the Sölnhofen limestones in
Bavaria, Southern Germany. 3. Several of the specimens were found by or passed through the
hands of one family who profited enormously by their sale. 4. At least one specimen of Compsognathus
without any impressions of feathers has been found in the same quarry. 5. Although the
quill of the larger feathers is composed of hard material that would have had as much
chance for preservation as the fragile small bones, none of the original feather material
remains. Only impressions can be seen.
A new sixth fossil is being reported in current science journals.
However, this is not actually a recent discovery. It was obtained from the same quarry
years ago but lay unnoticed in a private collection until recently. This specimen also
shows impressions of feathers.
Forgery?
The five points mentioned above apply to this "new"
specimen but it must be admitted that if feather impressions were added after the specimen
was extracted from the rocks, the work must have been done by an expert. In fact,
subsequent studies at the British Museum strongly indicate that such a forgery would have
been impossible.
At this point it may be wise to leave the question of the authenticity
of the Archaeopteryx open. Regardless of the final resolution of this question,
the significance of Archaeopteryx for support of evolution is not as great now as
formerly. Modern-type bird fossils from rocks of the same geologic period or lower
indicate that the evolution of reptiles to birds must have occurred several millions of
years before the appearance of Archaeopteryx based on the evolutionary time
scale. Creationists believe that God created the basic kinds of animals. Reptiles and
birds have many unique features that distinguish one group from the other. Archaeopteryx,
if genuine, would represent only one questionable example among the many that would be
needed to bridge the difference between reptiles and birds.
Suggested Reading
GEOSCIENCE NEWS
South American Creation Conferences
The South American Division of the Seventh-day Adventist church has requested the Geoscience Research Institute to present a series of Creation Conferences in South America during September and October, 1989. Four Creation Conferences are planned — one in Peru, one in Argentina, and two in Brazil. In response to this request, two G.R.I. staff members, James Gibson and Harold Coffin, visited the four areas to become familiar with the setting in which the conferences will be held, and to begin the necessary planning. David Rhys, born in Argentina and fluent in Spanish, gave assistance in Peru and Argentina.
First Conference
The first Creation Conference will be held at Inca Union University,
near Lima, Peru. A highlight of the conference there will be a geology field trip to the
summit of the pass over the Andes, an elevation of over 15,800 feet. The second conference
is to be held at the River Plate College, northwest of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Here, a
river has cut through the rolling farmland. The banks of this river are a rich source of
late Tertiary fossils, both terrestrial and marine. Many of these fossils are on display
in the college museum, directed by Dr. Carlos Steger, who has taught and studied in the
area for many years.
One conference will be held at Brazil College in Sao Paulo. This city
is reported to be the largest in the southern hemisphere. From this location the group
will travel to see a rather impressive limestone cave that contains excellent examples of
mineral deposits in a great variety of forms. The final conference will be held at the
former Northeastern Brazil Academy, now being expanded to college status. Here
participants will travel to the city of Salvador, studying road cuts in Precambrian and
Cretaceous rocks along the way. In Salvador they will visit a university museum, where
examples of fossils from many places in Brazil and other areas will be available for
study.
Resources
The South American Creation Conferences will provide resources for those who face questions dealing with apparent discrepancies between science and Scripture and will stimulate interest in creationism. In addition, the G.R.I. staff will benefit from the opportunity to study new areas of the earth, and from the establishment of new friendships among the people of South America.
Petrified Forest of Patagonia
During the recent trip by James Gibson and Harold Coffin to lay groundwork for the upcoming Creation Conferences in South America, a week was spent in Patagonia. David Rhys, who claims Patagonia as home country, and other members of the larger Rhys family still living in the area gave much valuable assistance. Patagonia is the name given to a large geographical area of southern Argentina and a small part of southern Chile. Charles Darwin visited Patagonia while sailing on the Beagle. In the 1930's G. G. Simpson, one of the world's foremost vertebrate paleontologists, did extensive research and collecting of fossil mammals in the area. Thus the name Patagonia has become established in scientific literature.
Strong Wind
The whole area of Patagonia reminds one of New Mexico, but one
feature not as abundantly represented in New Mexico is the famous strong wind.
Fortunately, the wind was mostly gentle while we were there. Large buttes, extensive
mesas, and badland topography are characteristic of many locations and the vegetation is
sparse due to the and climate.
For many years extensive petrified forests have been known to exist in
several areas of Patagonia. It was possible to visit three of these areas and to make
preliminary observations and comparisons with petrified forests of other countries. These
trees are located in Cretaceous and Paleocene sand and shale sediments, some of which are
brightly stained with minerals.
Penguin Rookery
In addition to the petrified forests, we also had opportunities to
visit a penguin rookery where hundreds of thousands of birds were nesting, walk among sea
elephants, seeing the majestic guanaco (a South American camel) and the odd Mara (a large
rabbit-like rodent), catch one of a brood of sixteen baby rheas (South American ostrich),
and capture three armadillos. Of course all these animals were released after examination.
Prospects for profitable research in the petrified forests are good and
plans for more detailed study are being considered.
GEOSCIENCE REPORTS, Summer 1989 No. 9
Editor --- Harold G. Coffin
Associate Editor --- Katherine Ching
Subscription requests, correspondence, and notices of change of address should be sent to: Geoscience Reports, Geoscience Research Institute, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350.
Geoscience Reports is a newsletter published by the Geoscience Research Institute to present current happenings at the Institute as well as articles of general interest which deal with creation/evolution issues for secondary-school and college science classes. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute.
Staff of the Institute are Ariel A. Roth - Director, Robert H. Brown, Katherine Ching, Ben L. Clausen. Harold G. Coffin. L. Jim Gibson, and Clyde L. Webster.