ÿWPC/ ëÒÔ„Oˆ›mWþ'ŽÓ°zÅkl(EÏfô ÝmGÓüñÜ*8ÕÇÞºíþ•Eã²;½.½í4Ü–ÕÍý¦ÛJpvÕ;Z «Âî!|«d~a”MšbèGau¥èǬk¨£oôç¹HÛ,ÕBìÏ-ßâSýq å]]‡t¦»)éZ~SŠí,–ŸÄ+¿†±oè}G)ÝH˜Óº§7·{:œ…òÝÜí϶ù2¹à\£ì†cßä5rG®ø·lG•óoEGgXS¹»=8™Õ¨G2×I\˜/Ã%ªº÷¬²ÎXö‘±ÛC8µíSè4VË3?#²6ÅÿúÁòqV›ñ¯{xÉÖæë• ‡çxÍiLÑpy *Ý;¬Î盕 šÀŒOd¹Y–°¨| L={L<–‚éQàZl¶YçZdPÒ'y,´D=éPozO3¤º¼¶4ÖJ×·m¦âªî]Àô}:ÃÑ•›F¶’Ê lú©Ðtï9´¼òŸù# S¹ÇsÅ`˜î)²(|my›ÃO–n3c®–þÙW»’†À9Ÿžo! „f:HÄ2Æx ´µvì\àT5ü”nœ#|e"§Á–b]uWx… ë•ø’ÆOöÙ4‚Ä?Š|ŽW#!ÂU Nã %1 0(7^ _wk4‡›ª m¬UNà 0D 0èU U <= 0ly 0Då £) Ì "ä    < T j ‚   ¾ U6Ö N  " 0b6b8NNUD†HÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊ B˜HP LaserJet 4LÈÈ,,,,ÈÈ0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX($¡¡°Ž/Ï DUDQn·/ ô®3|xÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(ÈhH  Z6Times New Roman Regular($Ó$‘‘òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó(©2ÿ $¥¥Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÓ  ÓÒ°ÒѸ °ÑÔ€XGrXXXÔÔ€ÂÁÂXXGrÔÓ'°‚X̘X°œX'ÓÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú..êb4 p`Š$Roman-WPType 1((3üÝ$¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó ™Ý ƒüÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€This€article€forms€Chapter€7€ofòò€Introducing€the€Bible,€Volume€1:€The€Old€Testament€andÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔIntertestamentalÔ_Ô€Literatureóó,€eds.€Douglas€R.€Clark€and€John€C.€Brunt€(Ô_ÔLanhamÔ_Ô,€MD:€UniversityÐ œì ÐPress€of€America,€1997),€pp.€63„70.Lev 19:13Deut 24:14, 15Dan 7:1fJosh 8:24, 25Ruth 4:7fPs 122:11 Sam 9:9Amos 9:4b-15Ezek 16:44ffLev 19:13,}í’‘Z‹Harrington Deut 24:14, 15ÿÿH\Time - p. ùIsn't It About Time? - p. ù,Harrington Regular >Ñ#€$r$Xÿÿd#ÑÑ €" ÑØØ dÝ ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÔ_Ôà@ìàThe€Bible:€Isnððt€It€About€Time?ˆÌà@Ø Ø ìàDouglas€R.€Clark,€à@@ÀÀ!ìàWalla€Ô_ÔWallaÔ_Ô€CollegeˆÌà@RRìàFaith€and€Science€ConferenceˆÌà@ìàGlacier€View€Ranch,€COˆÌà@ææ"ìà13„20€August€2003ˆÌÌAbstractÌÌà  àIsnððt€it€about€time?Ìà  àWell,€yes€and€no.Ìà  àGiven€the€two€options€generally€offered€over€the€past€several€decades€(centuries?)€ofÏdiscussion€about€these€matters€(brief€earth€history€or€extended€past),€it€really€is€about€time.€€EitherÏan€extremely€short€chronology€which€assumes€creator€and€creation€or€an€extremely€longÏchronology€which€assumes€evolution€without€divine€interference.€€These€choices€stand€byÏthemselves€as€the€two€alternatives€we€face€...€or€at€least€have€faced€up€to€the€present.Ìà  àBut€isnððt€it€about€time€that€we€consider€other€options?€€And€that€we€do€so€together,€takingÏadvantage€of€all€the€gifts,€perspectives€and€passions€represented€within€Adventism?€€Arenððt€thereÏalternative€models€of€reconstructing€the€past€which€might€help€us€maintain€critical€honesty€withÏwhat€is€or€appears€to€be€the€case€in€the€scientific€world€and€support€a€strong€faith€in€the€Bible€andÏin€God€as€creator?Ìà  àWhat€DOES€the€Bible€assume€and€say€about€time?€€How€should€we€understand€theÏbiblical€perspectives€on€time,€the€vocabulary€of€chronological€flow€in€Scripture,€of€epoch€andÏcadence?€€What€role€do€the€various€versions€and€translations€of€the€Bible€play€(the€Hebrew€Bible,Ïthe€Samaritan€Pentateuch,€the€Septuagint,€the€Greek€New€Testament,€etc.)?€€Can€we€learnÏanything€from€a€fresh€look€at€the€concept€of€inspiration?€€How€much€a€factor€are€the€distinctionsÏbetween€transmission€through€an€oral€culture€as€opposed€to€that€by€means€of€a€written€culture?€ÏWhat€dynamics€become€important€as€one€realizes€that€virtually€all€duplicate€(triplicate,Ïquadruplicate,€etc.)€accounts€in€Scripture€vary€in€the€details€provided,€perspectives€assumed,Ïlessons€taught?€€How€does€one€do€numbers€in€the€Bible?€€What€can€we€say€about€genealogies€inÏterms€of€purpose€and€scope?€€To€what€degree€are€modern€concerns€about€time€reflected€in€theÏbiblical€world€and€words€and,€for€that€matter,€theirs€in€ours?€€What€about€non„biblical€accounts€ofÏorigins,€cosmologies€and€time„frames?Ìà  àIs€it€really€about€time€...€or€isnððt€it?ÌÌÐ  $X" ÐÑ€%hŽÑà@< < ìàò òÔ‡°ô°XXÔÔ‡°1P°°°ôÔThe€Bible:€Isnððt€It€About€Time?Ô#†°ô°°°1PÕ #ÔÔ#†XGrX°°ô¶ #Ôó óˆÐ ° Ðà@Ø Ø ìàDouglas€R.€Clark,€à@@ÀÀ!ìàWalla€Ô_ÔWallaÔ_Ô€CollegeˆÌà@RRìàFaith€and€Science€ConferenceˆÌà@ìàGlacier€View€Ranch,€COˆÌà@ææ"ìà13„20€August€2003ˆÌÌà  àIsnððt€it€about€time?€€Well,€yes€and€no€...€and€maybe€only€time€will€tell.ÌÌà0  àOne€day€the€heavenly€beings€came€to€present€themselves€before€the€Lord€and€Satan€alsoÏcame€among€them.€€The€Lord€said€to€Satan:€ð ðWhere€have€you€come€from?ðð€€SatanÏanswered€the€Lord:€ð ðFrom€going€to€and€fro€on€the€earth,€and€from€walking€up€and€downÏon€it.ðð€€The€Lord€said€to€Satan:€ð ðHave€you€considered€my€servants,€the€AdventistÏscientists€and€theologians?€€There€are€none€like€them€on€the€earth,€blameless€and€upright,Ïfearing€God€and€turning€away€from€evil.ðð€€Then€Satanòòóó€answered€the€Lord:€ð ðDo€AdventistÐ œì  Ðscientists€and€theologians€fear€God€for€nothing?€€Have€you€not€put€a€fence€around€themÏand€their€institutions€and€all€they€have,€on€every€side?€€But€now€stretch€out€your€hand€andÏsend€them,€with€full€funding,€to€research€chronology,€cosmology€and€radio„metric€datingÏtechniques€and€they€will€curse€you€to€your€face!ððÔ‡ XGrXXXGrÔÐLœ(#(# ÐÔ#†XGrXX XGr.#ÔÌà  àTo€appreciate€biblical€perspectives€on€time,€modern€exegetical€practice€would€suggestÏimmersing€ourselves€in€the€world€and€words€of€ancient€Israel€(for€the€Old€Testament)€or€theÏearliest€Christians€(for€the€New€Testament),€slipping€out€of€our€shoes€into€their€sandals,€swappingÏour€coats€for€their€robes.€€Three€basic€questions€guide€our€steps€here:€1)€What€DID€these€wordsÏmean€to€the€people€who€first€heard€them?€€2)€What,€then,€DO€they€mean€to€us?€€3)€How,€then,€areÏwe€moved€or€shaped€or€changed€by€them,€affected€by€what€we€hear€and€learn?€€Our€work€is€thusÏboth€academic€and€existential,€cognitive€and€emotive,€intellectual€and€devotional.Ìà  àI€have€always€appreciated€the€note€in€Ellen€Whiteððs€òòThoughts€from€the€Mount€of€BlessingÐ ˜è Ðóóon€the€value€of€this€approach.€€In€the€process€of€setting€the€context€for€Jesusðð€sermon,€sheÐ „Ô Ðsuggests:€ð ðLet€us€in€imagination€go€back€to€that€scene,€and,€as€we€sit€with€the€disciples€on€theÏmountainside,€enter€into€the€thoughts€and€feelings€that€filled€their€hearts.€€Understanding€what€theÏwords€of€Jesus€meant€to€those€who€heard€them,€we€may€discern€in€them€a€new€vividness€andÏbeauty,€and€may€also€gather€for€ourselves€their€deeper€lessonsðð€(1).€€Exegesis€and€aesthetics€in€theÏsame€breath,€and€on€a€page€not€difficult€to€remember.Ìà  àUnfortunately,€we€can€only€make€an€attempt€at€exegesis.€€We€are€never€fully€successful€inÏthe€ultimate€sense€of€reaching€our€goal€of€a€comprehensive€understanding€of€the€ancient€world.€ÏBut€we€keep€trying,€we€persist€in€the€endeavor€with€our€best€efforts.€€In€the€process,€we€also€bringÏto€the€task€a€good€deal€of€baggage€and€bias;€it€is€inescapable.€€We€each€have€our€own€stories€toÏtell€of€upbringing,€conversion,€faith€journeys€(however€many€the€detours€along€the€way),Ïchallenges€and€conquests.€€We€are€each€the€varied€products€of€personality€traits,€presuppositions,Ïgeographical€location,€sociological€factors€and€forces,€educational€opportunities€(realized€orÏrouted€around),€family€histories,€learning€styles,€faith€development,€physical€makeup,€emotionalÏcharacteristics.€€These€are€inevitable€and€not€somehow€severed€from€Godððs€good€creation,€even€ifÏsomewhat€flawed€by€the€environment€in€which€we€exist.€€In€any€case,€we€all€bring€uniqueÏpersonalities€and€perspectives€to€this€enterprise.Ð D-”(+ ÐÑ%hŽÑâ %âÑ8€$—o$X XdìXXdì8ÑÑ€"ÑØØâ %âÑ  Ñà  àHowever,€admitting€our€limitations,€we€still€work€to€enter€the€biblical€world,€our€handsÐ d Ðheld€together,€our€common€purpose€intact:€to€understand€and€appreciate€what€the€inspired€BibleÏwriters€have€to€tell€us€about€time€ð!ð€initially€from€their€perspective,€then€ours.€€And€we€do€soÏtogether,€taking€full€advantage€of€all€the€gifts,€perspectives€and€passions€represented€withinÏAdventism.€€Isnððt€it€about€time€that€we€do€this?€€Yes€...€and€yes!Ìà  àSo,€slipping€into€the€sandals€of€ancient€Israelites€from,€say,€the€three€or€four€centuriesÏstraddling€the€transition€between€the€second€and€first€millennia€B.C.,€what€might€we€be€able€toÏdetect€of€value€in€our€quest€to€enter€their€world€in€order€to€draw€out€meaning€for€us€in€ours?ÌÌà  àòòFirstóó,€we€notice€that€there€is€no€HBC€(Hebrew€Book€Center)€on€the€corner€of€Fourth€andÐ °L  ÐFig€Streets,€in€which€we€might€purchase€a€copy€of€the€Bible.€€Written€documents€indeed€there€are,Ïbut€they€are€extremely€limited€in€number€and€availability.€€Virtually€only€the€elite€can€read€and€fewÏhave€tumbled€to€the€idea€of€publishing.€€ò òTheirs€is€primarily€an€oral€cultureó ó,€at€least€for€the€firstÐ t  Ðcenturies€of€Israelððs€tribal€existence,€and,€likely€for€most€of€the€population,€long€into€theÏmonarchy.ññÌññññ€€ññññà0  àññññTo€quote€someone€famous€I€once€knew,€ññð ðVery€likely€the€vast€majority€of€what€we€now€read€in€Scripture€originally€foundÏexpression€in€òòoral€formóó.€€The€ancients,€in€other€words,€first€òòtoldóó€stories,€òòsangóó€psalms,Ð (Ä Ðòòchantedóó€hymns,€òòpreachedóó€prophetic€sermons,€òòproclaimedóó€ð ðwoeðð€oracles€and€salvationÐ ° Ðspeeches,€òòrecountedóó€historical€events,€òòrecalledóó€proverbial€sayings,€òòpondered€aloudóóÐ œ Ðtheological€themes,€òòsharedóó€vision€reports,€òòspunóó€allegories,€òòannouncedóó€legal€proscriptions.€Ð ìˆ ÐMany€scholars€today€have€been€careful€to€draw€attention€to€the€indicators€of€Ô_ÔoralityÔ_Ô€withinÏthe€written€texts€of€Scriptureð"ða€host€of€poetic€memory€devices,€stylistic€tools,€narrativeÏtechniques,€etc.€€These€all€remind€us€that€most€of€the€Bible€was€first€spoken€long€beforeÏthe€resulting€written€texts€came€about.€€They€also€remind€us€that€sensitivity€to€theÏdynamics€of€Ô_ÔoralityÔ_Ô€can€explain€some€of€the€repetitive€and€otherwise€puzzling€elements€weÏoften€find€in€Scripture€and€that€listening€to€the€text€being€read€may€offer€its€own€set€ofÏrewards.€€It€is€at€the€oral€stage€of€communication€that€prophets,€poets,€priests,€the€people,Ïsages€and€storytellers€initially€share€their€observations€growing€out€of€encounters€with€theÏdivineðð€(Clark:€4).Ð (#(# Ðà  àAccording€to€theorists€like€Walter€Ô_ÔOngÔ_Ô,€among€others,€the€dynamics€of€communication€inÏprimarily€oral€cultures€as€opposed€to€written€cultures€include:€holistic€as€opposed€to€fragmented,Ïsynthetic€and€not€analytical,€practical€more€than€theoretical,€communal/performance„oriented€overÏindividual€and€authorial,€personal/internal€versus€objective/external,€participatory€and€not€private,Ïdynamic/living€as€opposed€to€static/codified.€€ð ð...€an€oral€culture€simply€does€not€deal€in€suchÏitems€as€geometrical€figures,€abstract€categorization,€formally€logical€reasoning€processes,Ïdefinitions,€or€even€comprehensive€descriptions,€or€articulated€self„analysis,€all€of€which€deriveÏnot€simply€from€thought€itself,€but€from€text„formed€thoughtðð€(Ô_ÔOngÔ_Ô:€55).€€However,€we€must€notÌà0  àð ð...€imagine€that€orally€based€thought€is€ððÔ_ÔprelogicalÔ_Ôðð€or€ððillogicalðð€in€any€simplistic€sense€ð!ðÏsuch€as,€for€example,€in€the€sense€that€oral€folk€do€not€understand€causal€relationships.€ÏThey€know€very€well€that€if€you€push€hard€on€a€mobile€object,€the€push€causes€it€to€move.€ÏWhat€is€true€is€that€they€cannot€organize€elaborate€concatenations€of€causes€in€the€analyticÏkind€of€linear€sequences€which€can€only€be€set€up€with€the€help€of€texts.€€The€lengthyÏsequences€they€produce,€such€as€genealogies,€are€not€analytic€but€aggregative.€€But€oralÐ  -¼&* Ðcultures€can€produce€amazingly€complex€and€intelligent€and€beautiful€organizations€ofÏthought€and€experienceðð€(Ô_ÔOngÔ_Ô:€57).€€Ð (#(# ÐIn€addition,€oral€communication€tends€to€be€conservative€and€traditionalist,€since€it€has€taken€aÏlong€time€to€collect€and€remember€the€information€passed€along€(Ô_ÔOngÔ_Ô:€41).€€Ìà  àAncient€Israel€was€not€solely€an€oral€culture,€because€we€do€have€written€records.€€But€itsÏlife€and€thought€were€clearly€affected€by€the€dynamics€of€Ô_ÔoralityÔ_Ô,€as€the€elements€of€biblical€poetryÏand€narrative€testify.€€Memory€devices€abound€in€the€repetition€of€words€and€phrases€(both€poeticÏand€narrative,€even€if€lost€in€English€translations),€assonance,€meter,€parallelism.€€All€of€thisÏsuggests€that€people€in€a€predominantly€oral€culture€develop€their€memories€more€completely€thanÏdo€those€dependent€on€written€sources€of€information.Ìà  àOne€conclusion€we€could€derive€from€this€phenomenon€is€that€we€might€draw€closer€to€theÏworld€of€the€Bible€if€we€could€listen€to€(and€perhaps€even€participate€antiphonally€in)€the€songs,Ïthe€stories,€the€sentiments€of€the€sages.€€Theirs€was€less€a€(modern)€scientific€world€than€a€sentientÏone.€€They€found€themselves€on€a€surround„sound€stage,€processing€and€assimilating€informationÏand€experience€together,€holistically.Ìà  àThis€does€not€mean€that€they€were€not€interested€in€what€we€would€call€data,€scientificallyÏobservable€phenomena,€constructs€like€time.€€But€it€does€mean€that€they€combined€what€they€sawÏin€the€world€around€them€and€heard€through€stories€and€song€with€a€deep€faith€in€God€as€theÏsource€of€everything,€all€in€an€attempt€to€survive€in€and€celebrate€their€world.ÌÌà  àThis€leads€to€òòa€second€observationóó:€there€are€no€scientific€labs€to€be€found€anywhere€inÐ Ôp Ðancient€Israel,€no€particle€accelerators€or€centers€of€€computerized€Ô_ÔchronometricÔ_Ô€assessment€€toÏtest€theoretical€hypotheses.€€ò òTheirs€is€primarily€a€concrete€worldó ó,€experienced€in€everyday€lifeÐ ¬H Ðin€ways€which€meant€something€in€their€relationship€to€God€and€to€the€world€around€them,€whichÏallowed€them€to€make€it,€to€survive.€€It€was€in€particular€the€sages,€the€wise€men€and€women,€whoÏhad€the€time€and€luxury€of€observing€how€things€worked.€€In€fact,€observation€becomes€part€ofÏthe€inspiration€process€through€which€God€somehow€superintended€the€way€the€wise€transmittedÏorally€and€then€in€written€form€to€Scripture€what€they€had€watched€and€learned.€€And€it€is€thisÏprocess€which€comes€as€close€as€anything€in€the€Bible€to€what€we€would€consider€the€scientificÏenterprise.€€(Some€might€argue€that€this€places€scientists€among€the€wise.)Ìà  àSo,€what€did€they€observe?€€And€what€did€the€cumulative€observations€about€their€worldÏtell€them,€from€all€we€can€know€through€the€study€of€the€Bible€and€other€remains€provided€byÏhistory€and€archaeology?€€From€all€they€could€see,€and€from€all€we€feel€we€know€they€could€seeÏon€the€basis€of€every€source€available€to€us€today,€the€land/earth€(same€word€in€Hebrew)€was€flatÏin€every€direction,€the€cobalt„blue€sky€domed€overhead,€solid€and€supported€by€the€mountains€(theÏHebrew€term€for€ð ðfirmamentðð€means€a€beaten€metal€plate€ð!ð€firm).€€The€lessor€and€greater€lights,Ïalong€with€the€stars€made€their€way€across€the€dome€which€also€separated€waters€above€it€fromÏthose€beneath€the€earth.€€Occasionally,€as€a€gift€from€God,€sluices€opened€and€rain€or€snow€fellÏupon€and€blessed€the€earth.€€Not€until€the€seventh€century€or€so€do€we€hear€of€any€suggestion€thatÏthe€earth€was€a€globe,€and€that€from€Greece.Ìà  àThe€next€set€of€questions:€how,€when€and€why€did€their€world€come€about?€€These€areÏqueries€not€unimportant€to€them,€but€probably€not€in€the€same€way€as€for€us€today,€at€least€notÏentirely€so.€€The€biblical€cosmologies€number€several€and€seem€more€interested€in€ð ðwhoðð€broughtÐ  -¼&* Ðthe€world€about€than€anything€else.€They€also€helped€explain€why€things€worked€the€way€they€did,Ïwhy€the€kind€of€lives€the€people€lived,€the€beauties€they€observed€around€them,€the€hard€workÏwhich€attended€them€from€the€cradle€to€the€grave.€€The€ð ðhowðð€of€the€worldððs€origins€takes€variousÏforms€in€the€Bible.€€But€what€about€the€question€of€time,€the€ð ðwhenðð€of€creation?€€What€level€ofÏimportance€does€this€question€rate€in€Scripture?€€And€how€does€the€concrete€nature€of€ancientÏIsraelððs€world„view€play€a€role€here?Ìà  àIsraelites,€in€whose€sandals€we€are€attempting€to€walk,€heard€plenty€of€stories€and€sangÏnumerous€songs€of€origins,€many€of€which€ended€up€in€the€Bible.€€Genesis€1,€a€creation€hymnÏcelebrating€in€worship€the€majestic,€transcendent€God€who€spoke€everything€into€existence,€isÏcharacterized€by€poetic€repetition,€an€orderly,€stet„by„step€process€of€bringing€land,€plants€andÏanimals€to€life.€€It€begins€in€watery€(and€dangerous)€chaos,€but€moves€to€dry€land€and€the€creationÏof€floral€and€faunal€types€which€inhabit€the€world,€now€ready€for€human€beings.€€The€Sabbath,€andÏwith€it€Godððs€ceasing€of€the€work€of€creation,€concludes€the€week.€€Ancient€Israelððs€response?€ÏAwe€and€wonder,€doxology€and€praise,€at€the€power€of€their€majestic€God,€who€is€transcendent.€ÏPsalms€33€and€104€further€this€theme€in€ways€which€might€suggest€that€Genesis€1€was€originally€aÏcreation€hymn€like€them.Ìà  àGenesis€2,€a€narrative€account,€begins€in€the€desert€where€water€is€in€short€supply,€butÏprovided€nonetheless€by€means€of€a€mist€from€the€Lord€God.€€When€there€is€no€plant€or€shrub,€theÏLord€God€ð ðformsðð€the€human€being€like€a€potter€would,€then€ð ðplantsðð€a€garden,€complete€withÏflowing€streams,€holding€off€on€the€animals€until€all€was€ready€for€them.€€These€the€Lord€God€alsoÏð ðforms.ðð€€Finally,€the€Lord€God€ð ðconstructsðð€a€rib€into€woman€and€the€two€people€are€joinedÏtogether€into€one.€€Ancient€Israelððs€response?€€Praise€and€wonder€at€the€presence€of€the€Lord€GodÏand€his€hands„on€participation€in€their€world€and€lives,€a€God€who€is€immanent.Ìà  àAnother€dimension€appears€in€Proverbs€8,€with€the€depiction€of€Ms.€Wisdom,€the€first€ofÏGodððs€created€works,€who€stands€by€Godððs€side€as€his€counselor€during€the€creation€of€the€world.€ÏA€number€of€other€metaphors€jump€off€the€pages€of€the€Bible€to€enrich€our€understanding€of€GodÏas€creator:€the€divine€Bedouin€tent€host€who€spreads€out€the€world€like€a€tent€in€which€we€canÏdwell,€well€fed,€welcomed,€well€protected.€€Or€the€divine€dragon„slayer€who€repeatedly€inÏScripture€fights€and€finishes€off€the€fleeing€sea€monster€as€part€of€the€creative€process€(Job€26:12„¼14;€Psalms€74:12„17€and€89:8„13;€Isaiah€51:9„11,€for€example).€€The€latter€metaphor,€borrowedÏfrom€surrounding€countries€but€also€buried€deeply€into€ancient€Israelite€consciousness,€spokeÏprofoundly€of€Godððs€ability€to€bring€order€out€of€chaos,€not€simply€at€the€time€of€creation,€butÏover€and€over€again€when€chaos€threatened€to€overtake€their€lives€and€devour€them€in€theÏconcrete€world€they€occupied.ÌÌà  àBut€what€about€time?€€Discussion€here€will€inevitably€involve€òòa€third€observationóó€aboutÐ ¨&D # Ðancient€Israelites€and€their€perceptions.€€ò òTheirs€is€an€eastern€cultureó ó.€€While€I€personally€believeÐ ”'0!$ Ðthat€the€Bible€is€inspired€en€toto€(not€one€part€more€than€another,€but€probably€inspired€in€aÏvariety€of€ways€[see€APPENDIX€1])€and€that€the€Bible€provides€normative€values€for€our€lives,€IÏhave€also€been€persuaded€by€my€own€research€and€observations€over€several€decades€ofÏprofessional€and€personal€engagement€with€Scripture€that€this€was€a€divine„human€process.€€IÏbelieve€strongly€in€the€divine€credentials€behind€Scripture,€a€stance€of€faith€on€my€part.€€I€also€seeÏand€sense€human€fingerprints€throughout€the€Bible.€€These€I€can€observe€and€test.€€And€there€is€aÐ  -¼&* Ðlot€we€can€know€about€the€role€of€human€beings€in€the€formation€of€the€Bible.€€However€timelessÏthe€message€of€Scripture,€the€human€spokespersons€were€nevertheless€products€of€their€time€andÏculture.€€We€should€not€expect€them€to€transcend€their€world,€even€if€God€may€through€theirÏwords.€€And€their€words€and€world€were€eastern.€€None€of€the€Bible€was€written€in€the€west,Ïwhere€most€of€us€live.€€The€Bible€writers€did€not€grow€up€in€Paris€(France€or€Texas);€they€did€notÏattend€school€at€Southern€or€La€Sierra;€they€were€not€invited€to€conferences€on€highly€theoreticalÏissues€like€science€and€faith.Ìà  àThis€becomes€particularly€apparent€when€we€talk€about€time.€€ð ðThe€biblical€conceptions€ofÏtime€and€their€terminology€can€be€adequately€understood€only€if€one€takes€care€not€to€assumeÏunconsciously€our€modern€Western€scientific€or€philosophical€interpretation€of€time€in€the€Bible€orÏto€carry€it€over€into€the€Bibleðð€(Jenni:€642„643).€€Jenni€continues:€ð ð...€we€should€go€still€furtherÏwith€the€assertion€that€the€Ô_ÔOTÔ_Ô€possesses€a€conception€of€time€which€is€entirely€unlike€ours€andÏtherefore€a€completely€different€understanding€of€realityðð€(646).€€That€reality€Johannes€PedersenÏlong€ago€defined€this€way:€Ìà0  àð ðThat€which€characterizes€the€Ô_ÔIsraeliticÔ_Ô€conception€of€time€is,€thus,€not€so€much€theÏdistances€as€the€substance€and€context€of€the€events€....€€History€is€not€considered€a€longÏchain€of€events,€divided€into€special€periods.€€It€is€true€that€one€reckons€with€periods,€butÏin€that€one€sees€the€experiences€gathering€round€a€special€feature€which€pervades€theÏwhole,€an€important€event€or€a€prominent€manðð€(490).Ð (#(# Ðà  àIn€the€words€of€Jon€Ô_ÔDybdahlÔ_Ô€taken€from€an€Old€Testament€introduction€chapter€onÏcultural€differences€between€east€and€west€(69):€Ìà0  àÔ‡XGrXXXGrÔòòWestern€and€Israelite€concepts€of€time€and€its€use€are€differentóó.€€Most€modern,€middle„Ð À\ Ðclass€Westerners€are€future„oriented.€€They€focus€on€relatively€distant€goals€such€as€aÏcollege€degree,€money€for€their€childrenððs€education,€and€their€own€retirement.€€AncientÏIsraelite€society€was€present„oriented.€€Present„orientation€places€less€stress€on€schedulesÏand€timetables.€€Pay€for€a€dayððs€work€was€expected€at€the€end€of€that€day€€(Ô € ÔLev€19:13,ÏÔ € ÔDeut€24:14,€15).€€Meaningful€feedback€came€from€immediate€social€interaction€thatÏconcerned€present€survival€and€support.€€Because€the€present€is€crucial,€its€significance€isÏextended€for€a€present„oriented€person,€while€to€a€future„oriented€person€the€present€is€ofÏrather€short€duration.€€People€who€stress€present€time€can€often€easily€do€several€things€atÏonce,€and€the€completion€of€transactions€with€people€is€more€important.€€People€whoÏemphasize€future€time€tend€to€quantify€time€and€accomplishments.€€Present„time€culturesÏdo€today€those€things€that€can€only€be€done€today.€€These€differing€attitudes€toward€timeÏaffect€all€areas€of€life.€€(See€APPENDIX€2€for€the€entire€chapter€on€culture€in€ancientÏIsrael.)Ð (#(# Ðà  àAs€something€of€a€digression,€I€am€intrigued€by€the€fact€that€Paul€Ô#†XGrXXXGr0Q#ÔDavies,€in€his€òòAboutÐ ¨&D # ÐTime:€Einsteinððs€Unfinished€Revolutionóó,€returns€to€primal€understandings€of€time€as€a€way€ofÐ ”'0!$ Ðintroducing€what€Einsteinððs€theory€of€relativity€did€to€our€modern€perceptions€of€time€at€the€levelÏof€physics:Ìà0  àà ` àBut€this€simple€view€of€time€as€rigid€and€absolute€ð!ð€powerful€and€commonsensicalÏthough€it€may€be€ð!ð€is€fundamentally€flawed.€€Around€the€turn€of€the€twentieth€century,€theÏNewtonian€concept€of€universal€time€began€yielding€absurd€or€paradoxical€conclusionsÏconcerning€the€behavior€of€light€signals€and€the€motion€of€material€bodies.€€Within€a€fewÐ -¸&* ÐÔ_Ôshort€years,€the€Newtonian€world€view€had€spectacularly€collapsed,€taking€with€it€theÏcommonsense€notion€of€time.€€This€profound€and€far„Ð d Ðreaching€transformation€was€primarily€due€to€the€work€of€Einstein.ÐPì(#(# Ðà0  àà ` àÔ_ÔEisteinÔ_Ôððs€theory€of€relativity€introduced€into€physics€a€notion€of€time€that€isÐ <Ø Ðintrinsically€flexible.€€Although€it€did€not€quite€restore€the€ancient€mystical€ideas€of€timeÐ ( Ä Ðas€essentially€personal€and€subjective,€it€did€tie€the€experience€of€time€firmly€to€theÐ  ° Ðindividual€observerðð€(Davies€32„33).Ô‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔÐ œ(#(# ÐÔ#†XñÐXXXÏÑgl#Ôà  àDavies€also€cites€an€aboriginal€poem€which,€although€not€from€the€east€(depending€IÐ ì ˆ Ðsuppose€on€how€one€thinks€about€east€in€Australia),€is€consistent€with€eastern€sentimentsÐ Ø t Ðregarding€time.€€It€speaks€of€The€Dreaming,€a€category€of€primal€time€inaccessible€to€most€in€theÐ Ä ` Ðwest€(27):Ð °L  Ðà  àWhite€man€got€no€dreaming.Ð œ8  Ðà  àHim€go€ððÔ_ÔnotherÔ_Ô€way.Ð ˆ$  Ðà  àWhite€man,€him€go€different,Ð t  Ðà  àHim€got€road€belong€himself.Ð `ü  Ðà  àIf€these€assertions€are€anywhere€near€the€truth€in€representing€time€in€the€ancient€NearÐ Lè  ÐEast,€generally€speaking,€what€about€the€specific€terms€used€in€the€Bible€for€time?€€The€biblicalÐ 8Ô  Ðvocabulary€of€chronological€epoch€and€cadence€is€rich€and€varied.€€The€basic€terms€reflect€theÐ $À Ðfact€that€Bible€writers€were€not€interested€in€the€abstract€concept€of€time,€but€used€words€toÐ ¬ Ðindicate€specific€times€or€for€the€duration€or€stretch€of€extended€time.€€Here€are€the€majorÐ ü˜ Ðelements€of€the€biblical€vocabulary€of€time:Ð è„ Ðòòà0  àpa`amóó€ð!ð€ð ðFoot,ðð€ð ðstepðð€or€ð ðtime.ðð€€€Of€its€115€occurrences,€this€term€normally€shows€upÐ Ôp Ðin€the€historical€literature€of€the€Old€Testament€and€usually€refers€to€specific€points€inÐ À\ Ðtime€(Ô_ÔSbÔ_Ô).ЬH(#(# Ðòòà0  àÔ_ÔyomÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€Day.€€The€passing€of€time€is€often€denoted€with€this€word.€€One€could€add€monthsÐ ˜4 Ðand€years€as€well,€but€the€Bible€writers€seemed€especially€fond€of€òòÔ_ÔyomÔ_Ôóó.Є (#(# Ðòòà0  àÔ_ÔzemanÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€ð ðSpecific€hour.ððÐp (#(# Ðòòà0  àmo`edóó€ð!ð€ð ðAgreed€timeðð€or€ð ðfestival€occasion.ððÐ\ø(#(# Ðòòà0  à`etóó€ð!ð€(296€times)€ð ðpoint€of€time,ðð€as€in€the€ð ðright€timeðð€for€something,€a€span€of€time€orÐ Hä Ðtime€in€general.€€The€word€for€ð ðnowðð€(òò`Ô_ÔattaÔ_Ôóó)€derives€from€this€term€and€occurs€433€times.€Ð 4 Ð ÐTime€can€be€near€or€far;€however,€alone€this€word€does€not€denote€a€certain€length€ofÐ  !¼ Ðtime.€€Emphasis€rests€on€the€appointed€time€for€something€(see€especially€Ecclesiastes€3),Ð  "¨ Ðbut€not€without€some€sense€of€the€linear€connections€between€past,€present€and€futureÐ ø"” Ð(Ô_ÔKronholmÔ_Ô€2001).Ðä#€ (#(# Ðòòà0  à`Ô_ÔolamÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€ð ðLong€timeðð€or€ð ðperiod€of€time,ðð€ð ðfarthest,€remotest€time,ðð€appearing€460€timesÐ Ð$l! Ðin€the€Hebrew€and€Aramaic€of€the€Old€Testament.€€Its€meaning€it€tied€to€the€object€itÐ ¼%X" Ðdescribes.€Sixty€occurrences€refer€to€time€long€past,€something€extraordinarily€old,€fromÐ ¨&D # Ðtime€immemorial,€from€antiquity,€ancient,€as€far€back€as€possible,€long€ago.€€ReferencesÐ ”'0!$ Ðto€the€future€utilize€this€word€260€times€as€in:€ð ðfor€always,ðð€ð ðperpetual.ðð€€Often€ð ðas€longÐ €("% Ðas€possible.ðð€€With€God,€time€is€understood,€as€usual,€in€the€context€of€its€object.€Ð l)#& ÐEcclesiastes€3:11€ð!ð€the€seemingly€incessant€nature€of€existence€without€meaning,€placedÐ X*ô#' Ðby€God€in€the€human€mind€(Ô_ÔPreussÔ_Ô);€I€have€wondered€if€it€might€better€be€translatedÐ D+à$( Ðð ðcuriosity,ðð€the€entire€sense€of€past€and€future,€the€whole€world,€planted€in€humanityððsÐ 0,Ì%) Ðheart€by€the€creator.€€ð ðPast€time,ðð€ð ðindefinite€futurity,ðð€ð ðeverlastingðð€(in€relation€to€God)Ð -¸&* Ð(Brown„Driver„Briggs).€€According€to€Ô_ÔBomanÔ_Ô,€òò`Ô_ÔolamÔ_Ôóó€derives€from€a€verb€meaning€ð ðtoÐ d Ðhide€or€concealðð€which€leads€him€to€see€in€this€word€ð ða€designation€of€time€extending€soÐ Pì Ðfar€that€it€is€lost€to€our€sight€and€comprehension€in€darkness€and€invisibilityðð€(151).Ð<Ø(#(# Ðòòà0  àÔ_ÔqedemÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€ð ðIn€front,ðð€ð ðeast,ðð€ð ðprehistoric€or€primeval€time.ðð€€The€term€occurs€61€times€inÐ ( Ä Ðthe€Old€Testament.€€ð ðIn€approximately€half€the€remaining€occurrences€[the€majority€ofÐ  ° Ðoccurrences€overall],€òòÔ_ÔqedemÔ_Ôóó€has€either€spatial€(ð ðeast,€easterly€directionðð)€or€temporalÐ  œ Ð(ð ðprehistoric€times,€primeval€timesðð)€connotations€in€which€the€transition€between€timeÐ ì ˆ Ðand€space€may€become€fluidðð€(Ô_ÔKronholmÔ_Ô€2003a:€506).€€References€can€be€found€inÐ Ø t Ðpassages€about€the€patriarchal€period,€the€beginnings€of€the€people€of€Israel,€the€time€ofÐ Ä ` ÐDavid,€the€most€remote€primeval€age€of€the€world,€even€the€time€before€creationÐ °L  Ð(Proverbs€8:22„23,€along€with€òò`Ô_ÔolamÔ_Ôóó)€(€(Ô_ÔKronholmÔ_Ô€2003a:€509).М8 (#(# Ðòòà0  àÔ_ÔkairosÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€Although€there€is€no€certainty€about€the€original€meaning€of€this€Greek€word,€theÐ ˆ$  Ðbasic€sense€is€ð ðdecisive€momentðð€(Ô_ÔDellingÔ_Ô€1965:€455),€a€ð ðdecisive€point€in€timeðð€(458).€Ð t  ÐOccasionally,€it€can€stand€for€duration,€stretches€of€time,€a€long€time€(Ô_ÔDellingÔ_Ô:€459).€€Ð`ü (#(# Ðòòà0  àÔ_ÔchronosÔ_Ôóó€ð!ð€This€Greek€term€can€carry€with€it€the€more€philosophical€sense€of€eternal€timeÐ Lè  Ðand€was€often€in€the€Greek€world€tied€to€the€beginning€of€the€cosmos€and€creation.€€It€canÐ 8Ô  Ðalso€signify€a€segment€of€or€point€in€time€(Ô_ÔDellingÔ_Ô€1974:€581„584).Ð$À(#(# Ðà  àThus,€it€appears€to€be€the€case,€particularly€in€the€Old€Testament€vocabulary€of€time,€thatÐ ¬ ÐBible€writers€emphasized€points€of€time,€tied€often€to€important€events€or€people.€€Terms€alsoÐ ü˜ Ðoccur€which€indicate€distant€time,€past€and€future.Ð è„ Ðà  àAn€additional€note€about€time€in€the€Hebrew€language,€however,€is€of€interest.€€There€isÐ Ôp Ðno€grammatical€tense€specifically€designed€for€past,€present€or€future.€€Action€in€Hebrew€is€eitherÐ À\ Ðcompleted€(perfect)€or€incomplete€(imperfect€and€the€subjunctive€modes).€€While€there€areÐ ¬H Ðobvious€indications€of€an€action€having€happened€in€the€past,€it€is€not€in€the€nature€of€Hebrew€toÐ ˜4 Ðexpress€time€by€means€of€tense,€rather€by€the€kind€of€action.Ð „  Ðà  àI€have€wondered,€in€the€context€of€specific€times,€especially€òòmo`ed€óóoccasions€ð!ð€organizedÐ p  Ðtimes€of€festival€and€worship€ð!ð€if€Rudolf€Ottoððs€understanding€of€ð ðthe€Holyðð€might€not€contributeÐ \ø Ðsomething€useful.€€Otto€encouraged€theologians€in€the€1920s€to€consider€Godððs€majestic€holinessÐ Hä Ðin€new€ways,€reordered€under€the€rubrics€of€mystery€and€otherness.€€The€ð ðÔ_ÔMysteriumÔ_ÔÐ 4 Ð ÐÔ_ÔTremendumÔ_Ôðð€of€the€ð ðÔ_ÔNumenÔ_Ô,ðð€or€the€deity,€he€felt€might€better€describe€the€God€of€the€BibleÐ  !¼ Ðthan€models€available€in€his€day.€€As€part€of€this€process,€he€asserted€that€biblical€charactersÐ  "¨ Ðexperienced€a€kind€of€numinous€unease€about€God.€€Indeed,€God€was€powerful,€protective€andÐ ø"” Ðprovided€for€them,€but€God€was€also€ò òGOD!ó ó,€and€therefore€not€entirely€predictable.€€Through€theÐ ä#€  Ðweather€or€other€natural€phenomena,€God€just€might€storm€through€the€valley€leaving€disaster€inÐ Ô$p! Ðits€wake.€€Many€biblical€stories€of€chance€encounters€with€God€are€quite€clear€in€reflecting€starkÐ À%\" Ðterror€on€the€part€of€those€ð ðfortunateðð€enough€to€bump€into€an€angel€(e.g.,€the€parents€of€SamsonÐ ¬&H # Ðin€Judges€13,€the€mother€of€Jesus€in€Luke€1).€€Unease€of€this€nature€is€best€resolved€through€orderÐ ˜'4!$ Ðand€structure,€which€is€one€reason€Old€Testament€believers€were€ecstatic€about€laws,€statutes,Ð „( "% Ðordinances€and€commandments.€€These€represented€Godððs€good€gift€of€orderliness€in€a€chaoticÐ p) #& Ðworld,€not€totally€unlike€Godððs€good€(ð ðvery€goodðð€in€Genesis€1)€gift€of€created€order€coming€outÐ \*ø#' Ðof€chaos€in€the€beginning.€€Israelites€consistently€viewed€òòtorahóó€(ð ðguidelinesðð€or€ð ða€pointing€of€theÐ H+ä$( Ðwayðð)€as€positive€because€of€the€order€commandments€provided€for€life.€€Psalm€19€isÐ 4,Ð%) Ðrepresentative€of€what€Ronald€Hals€claims€was€an€attitude€toward€the€law€entirely€of€ð ðjoy€ð!ðÐ  -¼&* Ðexuberant€joy,€even€embarrassingly€exuberant€joyðð€(Hals:€67).€€The€same€could€be€said€for€theÐ d Ðfestivals,€the€òòmo`ed€óóoccasions,€which€derived€from€the€law€and€provided€an€orderly,€structuredÐ Pì Ðway€to€relate€concretely€with€the€God€whom,€yes,€they€loved,€but€whom€they€also€feared€andÐ <Ø Ðfound€occasionally€unpredictable.Ð ( Ä Ðà  àAnother€question€growing€from€all€of€this:€Is€time€in€the€Old€Testament€linear€or€cyclical?€Ð  ° ÐOr€are€there€other€options?€€Does€it€matter€in€the€context€of€our€quest€to€understand€time€in€aÐ  œ Ðbiblical€sense?€€The€way€our€Bible€is€organized€clearly€indicates€movement€through€time.€€This€isÐ ì ˆ Ðnot€entirely€consistent€as€the€Bible€does€jump€back€and€forth€on€occasion,€based€evidently€moreÐ Ø t Ðon€other€rubrics€than€a€strict€linear€time„line€would€recommend.€€And€there€are€indications€ofÐ Ä ` Ðcyclicity.€€For€example,€even€though€most€of€the€major€festivals€on€Israelððs€religious€calendarÐ °L  Ðcelebrate€historical€events€ð!ð€the€exodus,€the€giving€of€the€law,€the€wilderness€wandering€ð!ð€theyÐ œ8  Ðhave€been€tied€to€the€repeating€agricultural€cycles€of€harvest.€€Godððs€saving€actions,€re„presentedÐ ˆ$  Ðand€re„actualized€annually€through€the€agriculturally€tied€festivals,€ritually€and€repeatedly€drewÐ t  Ðancient€Israel€into€his€rescue€ð ðnow,ðð€in€this€day,€at€the€present€moment.€€While€not€losing€sight€ofÐ `ü  Ðhistory€(time€past),€the€festivals€squarely€focused€attention€on€time€present,€repeated€each€year€forÐ Lè  Ðthe€peopleððs€ongoing€experience€of€Godððs€saving€action.Ð 8Ô  Ðà  àÔ_ÔBomanÔ_Ô€prefers€to€distinguish€Hebrew€time„keeping€from€anything€along€a€line€ð!ð€straightÐ $À Ðor€circular€ð!ð€and€does€so€with€what€he€calls€ð ðtime„rhythmsðð€(133„137).€€He€speaks€of€perpetualÐ ¬ Ðtime„rhythms€as€opposed€to€ð ðtime„movement,ðð€citing€Genesis€8:22:€ð ðWhile€earth€remains,Ð ü˜ Ðseedtime€and€harvest,€cold€and€heat,€summer€and€winter,€day€and€night,€shall€not€cease.ðð€€ð ðTheÐ è„ Ðquantity€of€duration€completely€recedes€behind€the€characteristic€feature€that€enters€with€time€orÐ Ôp Ðadvances€itðð€(139).€€Ô_ÔWestermannÔ_Ô€has€something€similar€to€say€about€genealogies:€ð ðTheseÐ À\ Ðsentences€are€as€monotonous€and€have€the€same€effect€as€those€of€Gen€1,€presenting€as€they€doÐ ¬H Ðthe€steady,€ongoing€rhythm€of€events€which€stamp€the€course€of€human€existence€ð!ð€birth,€lengthÐ ˜4 Ðof€life,€begetting,€death;€all€that€is€essentialðð€(7).€€One€could€include€as€well€the€list€of€ð ðtimesðð€inÐ „  ÐEcclesiastes€3:Ð p  Ðà  àð ða€time€to€be€born,€and€a€time€to€die;Ð \ø Ðà  àa€time€to€plant,€and€a€time€to€pluck€up€what€is€planted;Ð Hä Ðà  àa€time€to€kill,€and€a€time€to€heal;Ð 4 Ð Ðà  àa€time€to€break€down,€and€a€time€to€build€up;Ð  !¼ Ðà  àa€time€to€weep,€and€a€time€to€laugh;ððÐ  "¨ Ðà  àetc.Ð ø"” Ðà  àBut€what€about€all€the€numbers€in€the€Bible,€those€demarcating€days,€months€and€years€inÐ ä#€  Ðsequential€series,€many€connected€with€others,€thereby€extending€the€sense€of€time€passing?€Ð Ð$l! ÐThey€are€inescapably€linear,€clearly€sequential,€historical,€marking€off€time€in€a€fashion€withÐ ¼%X" Ðwhich€we€are€familiar.€€This€is€certainly€true€of€what€we€call€the€historical€books€(I€will€not€takeÐ ¨&D # Ðthe€time€to€discuss€here€the€problems€surrounding€attempts€to€make€the€numbers€in€Judges€workÐ ”'0!$ Ðchronologically,€nor€the€ever€thorny€issues€involved€in€dating€the€ancestors€or€the€exodus),€butÐ €("% Ðwhat€about€other€apparent€Ô_ÔchronometricÔ_Ô€devices€in€the€Bible?€€Ô_ÔAdventistsÔ_Ô€have€made€significantÐ l)#& Ðcontributions€to€the€biblical€chronology€of€the€time€of€the€Israelite€kingdoms,€after€all,€in€theÐ X*ô#' Ðwork€of€people€like€Edwin€Ô_ÔThieleÔ_Ô.€€And€what€we€know€today€from€contemporary€ancient€NearÐ D+à$( ÐEastern€chronologies€is€extensive€and€incredibly€complex.Ð 0,Ì%) Ðà  àIn€this€context,€what€are€we€to€say€about€genealogies?€€What€role€do€they€have€to€play€andÐ -¸&* Ðwhat€can€we€learn€from€them€about€time?€€These€questions€are€particularly€interesting€to€meÐ d Ðbecause€of€a€public€comment€I€heard€Edwin€Ô_ÔThieleÔ_Ô€make€at€an€archaeological€conference€atÐ Pì ÐAndrews€University€during€the€summer€of€1985.€€No€slouch€when€it€came€to€chronologicalÐ <Ø Ðcalculations,€Ô_ÔThieleÔ_Ô€had€arisen€in€the€audience€to€respond€to€someone€in€the€context€of€aÐ ( Ä Ðdiscussion€about€genealogies.€€Sitting€two€or€three€rows€behind€him,€I€shall€never€forget€theÐ  ° Ðthrust€of€his€words:€ð ðI€can€tell€you€accurately€and€with€a€good€deal€of€confidence€about€theÐ  œ Ðchronology€of€most€of€the€Old€Testament,€especially€of€the€kings,€but€please€donððt€ask€me€aboutÐ ì ˆ Ðgenealogies!ðð€€I€am€still€struck€by€those€words.€€And€while€we€continue€our€quest€to€penetrateÐ Ø t Ðgenealogies€and€their€significance,€Ô_ÔThieleÔ_Ôððs€reflections€haunt€me.€€In€fact,€they€have€forced€me€toÐ Ä ` Ðdig€more€deeply€into€these€often€cryptic€encapsulations€of€information€about€our€forebears.Ð °L  Ðà  àBiblical€genealogies€appear€to€focus€more€on€pre„monarchical€and€post„monarchicalÐ œ8  ÐIsrael€(following€the€utter€devastation€of€the€Babylonian€exile)€than€on€the€centuries€under€theÐ ˆ$  Ðkings.€€Hence€their€occurrence€in€literature€dealing€primarily€with€earlier€times€(Genesis€andÐ t  ÐExodus)€or€in€post„Ô_ÔexilicÔ_Ô€material€like€Ezra„Nehemiah€and€Chronicles.€€However,€genealogiesÐ `ü  Ðwere€originally€oral€in€nature€and€transmission€(and€therefore€practical,€communal,€dynamic,€asÐ Lè  Ðnoted€above):€ð ðIn€these€societies€[like€early€Israel]€genealogies,€usually€in€oral€form,€are€part€ofÐ 8Ô  Ðdaily€life€and€are€known€and€discussed€frequently€by€the€people.€€The€form€in€which€a€particularÐ $À Ðgenealogy€is€related€is€largely€determined€by€the€purpose€for€which€it€is€being€recited€orÐ ¬ Ðrecordedðð€(Wilson:€930).€€While€on€no€modern€believerððs€list€of€favorite€devotional€reading€(orÐ ü˜ Ðlistening€for€that€matter),€genealogies€were€recited€religiously€and€regularly€in€antiquity,€and€forÐ è„ Ðgood€reasons:€ð ð...€the€Ô_ÔOTÔ_Ô€contains€about€25€genealogies€of€varying€complexity,€a€fact€whichÐ Ôp Ðsuggests€that€genealogy€played€an€important€role€in€Israelite€life€and€thoughtðð€(Wilson:€930).Ð À\ Ðà  àAnother€characteristic€of€genealogies€is€flexibility.€€According€to€Robert€Wilson,€ð ðAllÐ ¬H Ðgenealogies,€whether€oral€or€written,€are€characterized€by€fluidity.€€Where€two€or€more€versionsÐ ˜4 Ðof€the€same€genealogy€exist,€it€is€usually€possible€to€detect€changes€in€the€relationship€of€namesÐ „  Ðwithin€the€genealogy€or€to€note€the€deletion€or€addition€of€namesðð€(930).€€Why€this€fluidity?€€ItÐ p  Ðmay€be,€citing€Wilson€again,€because€some€names€were€unimportant,€or€ð ðfluidity€may€be€crucialÐ \ø Ðfor€understanding€the€genealogies€and€may€indicate€significant€shifts€in€social€relationships.€€AÐ Hä Ðnumber€of€examples€of€genealogical€fluidity€can€be€found€in€the€Ô_ÔOTÔ_Ô,€but€unfortunately€theÐ 4 Ð Ðreasons€for€the€phenomenon€cannot€always€be€determinedðð€(930„931).€€The€twenty€or€so€variedÐ  !¼ Ðlists€of€the€12€tribal€leaders€should€indicate€something€in€this€regard,€given€the€differences€inÐ  "¨ Ðnumber€(from€ten€to€thirteen)€and€names€they€contain€(Wolf:€699„700).€€A€close€reading€of€theÐ ø"” Ðgenealogical€literature€in€the€Bible€will€reveal€several€intriguing€features€which€should€not€beÐ ä#€  Ðseen€as€problems€for€us,€rather€as€routes€to€understanding€the€real€nature€and€purposes€of€theseÐ Ð$l! Ðremarkable€components€of€biblical€literature.Ð ¼%X" Ðà  àRecent€anthropological€studies€of€tribes€and€tribal€entities€promise€additional€insights€intoÐ ¨&D # Ðthe€nature€and€constitution€of€the€ancient€tribes€and€clans€which€handed€down€genealogies.€€AnÐ ”'0!$ Ðimportant€1995€article€by€Sten€Ô_ÔLaBiancaÔ_Ô€and€Randy€Younker€on€the€tribal€kingdoms€of€Ammon,Ð €("% ÐÔ_ÔMoabÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEdomÔ_Ô€cites€tremendously€significant€sociological€factors€ð!ð€survival€strategies€in€aÐ l)#& Ðprecarious€subsistence€economy€based€on€pastoral€or€agricultural€pursuits€ð!ð€as€part€of€the€wayÐ X*ô#' Ðtribes€and€tribal€organization€were€perceived:€Ð D+à$( Ðà0  àð ð...€when€political€and€economic€circumstances€make€land„tied€production€of€crops€moreÐ 0,Ì%) Ðattractive,€the€center€of€gravity€ð!ð€in€terms€of€the€tribeððs€social€organization€ð!ð€is€likely€toÐ -¸&* Ðshift€in€the€direction€of€clans€and€lineages€bonded€by€means€of€more€or€less€rigid€lines€ofÐ d Ðdescent.€€However,€when€circumstances€make€range„tied€production€of€pasture€animalsÐ Pì Ðmore€attractive,€the€organizational€center€of€gravity€is€likely€to€shift€in€the€direction€ofÐ <Ø Ðhierarchically€organized€groups€of€kin€and€non„kin,€more€or€less€loosely€bonded€togetherÐ ( Ä Ðvia€lineal€descent€through€a€claimed€common€ancestorðð€(404).Ð °(#(# Ðà  àSo,€what€functions€did€these€genealogical€lists€serve€in€the€world€of€the€Bible?€€And€howÐ  œ Ðdoes€the€measurement€of€time€fit€in?€€While€answers€to€these€questions€could€take€us€into€a€hostÐ ì ˆ Ðof€issues€surrounding€the€complexity€of€genealogies,€I€will€keep€the€register€of€generally€acceptedÐ Ø t Ðrationales€for€genealogies€brief:Ð Ä ` Ðà0  àð!ð€Community€and€belonging.€€Ezraððs€reforms€for€the€post„Ô_ÔexilicÔ_Ô€community€in€Jerusalem,Ð °L  Ðwhich€focused€on€the€peopleððs€identity€as€Jewish€and€forced€the€divorce€of€all€foreignÐ œ8  Ðspouses,€was€based€in€large€part€on€genealogical€records€and€whether€or€not€claimantsÐ ˆ$  Ðappeared€on€the€lists.€€ð ðFrom€Babylon€came€Nehemiah€and€Ezra,€insisting€on€racial€purityÐ t  Ðand€the€purging€of€their€people€(Ezra€2:59„63;€10:9„44;€Neh.€13:23„28).€€Then€writtenÐ `ü  Ðproof€of€purity€of€descent€was€essential,€and€the€construction€of€pedigrees€increasedððÐ Lè  Ð(Bowman:€363).Ð8Ô (#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€Community€and€status.€€Directly€related€to€the€first€purpose,€this€one€also€played€aÐ $À Ðsignificant€role.€€ð ðIn€the€case€of€segmented€genealogies€[those€more€concerned€withÐ ¬ Ðlaterally€extended€family€than€family€lineage],€their€primary€purpose€is€to€express€actualÐ ü˜ Ðkinship€relationships€between€individuals.€€Such€relationships€are€important€in€daily€lifeÐ è„ Ðbecause€they€are€the€basis€for€regulating€social€interaction,€marriage,€and€inheritance,Ð Ôp Ðalong€with€other€social€rights€and€obligations....€€In€the€same€way€[through€commonÐ À\ Ðancestors],€status€relationships€can€be€expressed€genealogically,€and€so€can€economicÐ ¬H Ðposition,€geographical€location,€or€Ô_ÔculticÔ_Ô€positionðð€(Wilson:€931).€€Wilson€goes€on€to€say:Ð ˜4 Ðð ðIn€contrast€to€the€multiple€functions€of€segmented€genealogies,€linear€genealogies€haveÐ „  Ðonly€one:€to€ground€a€claim€to€power,€status,€rank,€office,€or€inheritance€in€an€earlierÐ p  Ðancestorðð€(931).€€The€biblical€genealogies€of€priests€and€priestly€families€illustrate€this,€asÐ \ø Ðdo€the€genealogies€of€Old€Testament€kings€and,€of€course,€of€Jesus€in€the€New€Testament.€Ð Hä ÐÐ (#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€Family€and€inheritance.€€An€extremely€practical€consideration€in€the€ancient€world,€inÐ  !¼ Ðwhich€social€security€was€grounded€in€the€family,€was€inheritance.€€ð ðIs€my€name€writtenÐ  "¨ Ðthere?ðð€was€an€inescapable€question€when€survival€was€on€the€line.Ðø"”(#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€Time€and€templates.€€Were€the€biblical€genealogies€concerned€about€time?€€Of€courseÐ ä#€  Ðthey€were.€€The€numbers€are€there€for€anyone€to€read,€collate,€organize,€total.€€WhateverÐ Ð$l! Ðthe€basic€or€primary€purposes€of€genealogies,€the€indicators€of€the€passage€of€time€areÐ ¼%X" Ðpresent€and€need€to€be€factored€into€this€discussion.€€The€question€is€how.Ш&D #(#(# Ðà  àOne€could€argue,€as€many€have,€that€there€are€variations€among€the€genealogies€of€theÐ ”'0!$ ÐOld€Testament,€and€complexities€demanding€careful€analysis.€€Siegfried€Horn€published€a€pieceÐ €("% Ðin€òòSpectrumóó€in€which€he€asked€about€dating€creation€on€the€basis€of€biblical€chronologies.€€HisÐ l)#& Ðresponse,€while€affirmative€in€the€temporal€framing€of€events€post„Abraham,€sees€too€manyÐ X*ô#' Ðproblems€with€the€genealogies€to€find€in€them€reliable€Ô_ÔchronometricÔ_Ô€information.€€The€variationsÐ D+à$( Ðamong€the€ancient€versions€as€well€as€within€the€biblical€corpus€itself€point€to€incomplete€data:€Ð 0,Ì%) Ðà0  àð ðIf€one€compares€any€two€genealogies€given€in€the€Bible,€one€of€the€two€is€usually€shorterÐ -¸&* Ðthan€the€other.€€For€example,€Ezraððs€genealogy€of€his€own€ancestry€reaching€back€toÐ d ÐAaron€leaves€out€several€generations€(cf.€Ezra€7:1„5€with€1€Chron.€6:3„15)€and€the€list€ofÐ Pì ÐDavidððs€descendants€on€the€throne€of€Judah€as€presented€in€Matthew€1:6„11€lacks€severalÐ <Ø Ðkings,€as€a€comparison€with€1€Chronicles€3:10„16€shows.€€Even€the€two€existing€biblicalÐ ( Ä Ðlists€of€the€genealogies€between€Noah€and€Abraham€are€not€identical,€as€a€comparisonÐ  ° Ðbetween€Luke€3€and€Genesis€11€showsðð€(Horn€19;€cf.€Ô_ÔGeratyÔ_Ô).Ð œ(#(# Ðà  àThis€statement€may€explain€why,€sitting€around€a€sumptuous€table€at€the€Ô_ÔAmraÔ_Ô€Hotel€inÐ ì ˆ ÐAmman,€Jordan€several€summers€ago,€Siegfried€(he€refused€to€let€me€call€him€Dr.€Horn,€whichÐ Ø t Ðgenerosity€on€his€part€jerked€my€ego€around€quite€a€bit)€announced€that€the€very€first€recordedÐ Ä ` Ðvote€of€the€Ô_ÔSDAÔ_Ô€Chronology€Committee,€formed€in€the€early€1950s€as€part€of€the€Ô_ÔSDAÔ_Ô€BibleÐ °L  ÐCommentary€project,€was€that€they€could€not€use€Ô_ÔUssherÔ_Ôððs€chronology€as€a€reliable€guide.€€ð ðIf€anÐ œ8  ÐAdventist€wants€to€believe€that€Creation€took€place€about€4,000€B.C.,€he€should€not€claim€that€heÐ ˆ$  Ðbases€his€belief€on€a€biblical€chronology€....ðð€(Horn:€19).€€Ð t  Ðà  àHorn€also€puts€his€finger€on€another€feature€of€the€Bible€in€general€ð!ð€variations€amongÐ `ü  Ðduplicate€(triplicate,€etc.)€accounts€in€the€Bible.€€Details€are€extremely€important€to€the€wayÐ Lè  ÐHebrew€writers,€using€an€economy€of€words€in€their€narratives,€wished€to€make€a€point€or€enrichÐ 8Ô  Ðthe€telling€of€a€story.€€When€duplicate€stories€or€lists€appear,€the€details€often€vary€between€themÐ $À Ðfor€the€sake€of€the€intended€lesson€in€each.€€This€can€be€illustrated€over€and€over€in€the€Bible:Ð ¬ ÐGenesis€1€really€is€different€from€Genesis€2,€however€the€final€text€was€pulled€together€underÐ ü˜ Ðinspiration;€Samuel/Kings€accounts€often€differ€in€the€details€from€the€parallel€ones€inÐ è„ ÐChronicles;€we€have€at€least€four€texts€on€the€Ô_ÔSyroÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔEphraimiticÔ_Ô€war€of€734„732€B.C.€(Isaiah€7„8;Ð Ôp Ð2€Kings€16;€2€Chronicles€28;€Hosea€5:8„7:16),€each€of€which€nuances€the€event€in€order€to€makeÐ À\ Ðimportant€theological€points€(Thompson);€the€four€Gospels,€including€Matthew€and€Luke€withÐ ¬H Ðtheir€extremely€divergent€genealogies,€provide€us€with€varied€perspectives.€€This€biblical€featureÐ ˜4 Ðshould€force€us€to€ask€why€details€vary,€which€might€lead€us€to€a€more€complete€understanding€ofÐ „  Ðand€appreciation€for€the€Bible€and€the€way€it€has€come€down€to€us.Ð p  Ðà  àBut€the€numbers€are€still€there.€€How€do€we€take€them€honestly€in€the€context€ofÐ \ø Ðgenealogies?€€Is€there€a€function,€or€functions,€which€may€have€eluded€us€in€our€search?€€Is€itÐ Hä Ðpossible€that€we€might€have€some€clues€in€the€biblical€material€itself?Ð 4 Ð Ðà  àThe€New€Testament€genealogies€offer€something€here.€€At€least€Matthew€is€clear€inÐ  !¼ Ðclaiming€three€sets€of€14€generations€each€between€Abraham€and€David,€David€and€theÐ  "¨ ÐBabylonian€captivity,€and€the€Babylonian€captivity€and€Jesus€(Matthew€1:17),€even€if€in€theÐ ø"” Ðprocess€he€has€to€be€creative€and€use€Ô_ÔJechoniahÔ_Ô€twice€to€get€the€numbers€to€work.€€Some€haveÐ ä#€  Ðnoted€a€pattern€in€Luke€(of€four€series€consisting€of€multiples€of€seven€[Bowman:€364]).€Ð Ð$l! ÐMatthew€has€28€generations€between€David€and€Jesus€and€Luke€has€42.€€Whatever€we€make€ofÐ ¼%X" Ðthese€data,€the€number€seven€certainly€is€a€player.€€In€addition,€it€is€not€unlikely€that€MatthewÐ ¨&D # Ðutilized€the€Septuagint€(LXX)€genealogies,€given€the€patterning€apparent€in€this€source€(House:Ð ”'0!$ Ð134)€and€the€fact€that€most€New€Testament€writers€quoted€from€the€LXX€rather€than€from€theÐ €("% ÐHebrew€Bible.€€In€any€case,€variations€and€patterns€have€emerged.Ð l)#& Ðà  àIs€it€possible€that€we€should€look€in€other€biblical€genealogies€for€patterns€of€numbersÐ X*ô#' Ðwhich€would€have€triggered€something€helpful€and€redemptive€for€the€original€hearers/readers€ofÐ D+à$( Ðthe€Bible,€something€which€might€have€provided€order€and€structure€for€their€lives€in€the€present?€Ð 0,Ì%) ÐThe€phrase,€ð ðThese€are€the€generations€of€...,ðð€actually€serves€a€structural€purpose€in€the€book€ofÐ -¸&* ÐGenesis,€even€if€applied€to€the€heavens€and€the€earth€(Genesis€2:4)€as€well€as€to€peopleÐ d Ð(especially€Genesis€5:1;€10:1,€11:10;€25:12;€36:1).€€Should€we€be€alert€to€something€literary€here,Ð Pì Ða€narrative€strategy€perhaps€which€pulled€genealogies€into€the€service€of€the€writer€in€order€toÐ <Ø Ðstructure€the€story€for€particular€purposes?Ð ( Ä Ðà  àA€1988€Andrews€University€(School€of€Education)€dissertation€by€Colin€House,€forÐ  ° Ðwhich€I€sat€as€the€external€reader,€attempts€to€answer€the€question€about€patterning€in€theÐ  œ Ðgenealogies€of€Genesis€5€and€11€as€they€appear€in€the€Ô_ÔMassoreticÔ_Ô€Text€(MT)€of€the€HebrewÐ ì ˆ ÐBible,€the€Hebrew€Samaritan€Pentateuch€(SP)€and€the€Greek€Septuagint.€€House€has€an€amazingÐ Ø t Ðmind€for€numbers€and€numerical€patterns.€€And,€while€I€donððt€follow€him€in€all€his€suggestionsÐ Ä ` Ðnor€in€all€his€conclusions,€I€found€the€piece€intriguing€(enough€so€that€I€will€be€showing€some€ofÐ °L  Ðhis€comparative€charts€at€this€conference).Ð œ8  Ðà  àSome€of€his€findings:Ð ˆ$  Ðà0  àð!ð€There€are€several€numbers€in€each€of€the€three€sources,€some€similar€to€the€others,Ð t  Ðothers€not€so,€rounded€to€multiples€of€ten€and€a€hundred.€€Adam,€Ô_ÔJaredÔ_Ô,€Enoch,€Ô_ÔLamechÔ_Ô,Ð `ü  ÐNoah,€Ô_ÔShemÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSerugÔ_Ô€maintain€partial€life„spans€(Ô_ÔprepaternalÔ_Ô€or€remainder)€in€hundred„Ð Lè  Ðyear€multiples.€€Virtually€all€figures€in€the€Genesis€5€and€11€genealogies€have€as€eitherÐ 8Ô  ÐÔ_ÔprepaternalÔ_Ô€or€the€remainder€portions€of€their€lives€a€ten„year€multiple,€somewhere€amongÐ $À Ðthe€three€versions.Ь(#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€A€comparison€of€the€pre„flood€data€in€MT,€SP€and€LXX€is€instructive.€€The€SamaritanÐ ü˜ ÐPentateuch€has€compressed€the€overlap€of€the€ten€generations€so€much€that€Adam€is€stillÐ è„ Ðalive€two€hundred€years€into€the€life€of€Noah€and€three€individuals€die€in€the€year€of€theÐ Ôp Ðflood.€€Thatððs€tight!€€At€least€one€edition€of€LXX€actually€has€Methuselah€dying€a€year€orÐ À\ Ðso€after€the€flood.€€Thatððs€too€tight!ЬH(#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€For€the€ten€post„flood€generations,€the€MT€is€more€compressed€than€the€others,€leavingÐ ˜4 Ðall€post„flood€patriarchs€alive€long€into€and,€in€some€cases,€beyond€the€life€of€Abraham.€Ð „  ÐNoah€dies€only€a€century€before€Abraham€passes€on€and€Ô_ÔShemÔ_Ô€even€outlives€Abraham.Ðp (#(# Ðà0  àð!ð€A€comparison€of€all€three€versions€suggests€that€while€different€from€each€other,€theyÐ \ø Ðall€attempted€to€balance€numbers€around€the€event€of€the€flood€and€contain€additionalÐ Hä Ðbalancing€sets€of€years€internally€as€well:€Ð4 Ð(#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à„€SP€has€creation€1307€years€before€the€flood€and€the€death€of€Joseph€in€Egypt€isÐ  !¼ Ð1307€years€after€the€floodÐ "¨` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à„€LXX€has€creation€2262€years€before€the€flood€and€the€destruction€of€Samaria€isÐ ø"” Ð2262€years€after€the€floodÐä#€ ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à„€MT€has€creation€1657€years€before€the€flood€and€the€destruction€of€Jerusalem€isÐ Ð$l! Ð1657€years€after€the€floodм%X"` (#` (# Ðà  àWhile€attempts€like€this€one€to€make€sense€of€the€numbers€run€the€risk€of€beingÐ ¨&D # Ðspeculative€and€overly€Ô_ÔnumerologicalÔ_Ô,€could€it€nevertheless€point€to€a€possible€way€ofÐ ”'0!$ Ðunderstanding€and€appreciating€the€genealogies?€€Is€it€feasible€that€structuring€time,€even€if€inÐ €("% Ðways€mysterious€to€us,€might€have€added€a€sense€of€security€to€ancient€Israelites€trying€to€keepÐ l)#& Ðtheir€lives€in€order,€particularly€in€the€face€of€devastating€events€like€the€loss€of€the€northernÐ X*ô#' Ðkingdom€or€of€Jerusalem€and€its€temple?Ð D+à$( Ðà  àAt€the€end€of€the€day,€what€should€we€do€about€time€in€the€Bible?€€Is€there€sufficient€timeÐ 0,Ì%) Ðfor€us€or,€more€to€the€purpose€of€this€conference,€do€we€have€more€time€on€our€hands€than€weÐ -¸&* Ðknow€what€to€do€with?€€Or,€does€the€Bible€even€begin€to€arbitrate€the€question?€€We€haveÐ d Ðattempted€to€enter€the€world€of€the€inspired€biblical€writers€in€order€to€discover€what€their€wordsÐ Pì Ðmeant€to€the€people€who€first€heard€them,€our€first€question€at€the€outset€of€this€paper.€€We€haveÐ <Ø Ðobserved€aspects€of€their€mostly€oral,€largely€concrete€and€clearly€eastern€culture€and€how€theseÐ ( Ä Ðtie€into€questions€of€time,€especially€the€beginning€of€time.Ð  ° Ðà  àBut€we€donððt€live€in€the€biblical€world€and€its€milieu,€so€the€second€and€third€questionsÐ  œ Ðasked€at€the€beginning€of€this€paper€should€bring€us€back€to€our€setting.€€What€then€DO€theseÐ ì ˆ Ðwords€mean€to€us€and€what€difference€does€it€make?Ð Ø t Ðà  àIt€strikes€me€that€the€biblical€concerns,€couched€in€their€time€and€place,€while€clearlyÐ Ä ` Ðbearing€similarities€to€modern€issues€(as€so€much€of€the€Old€Testament€material,€especially€thatÐ °L  Ðrelating€to€the€monarchy,€illustrates),€just€as€clearly€track€in€different€directions€from€ours.€€TheÐ œ8  Ðmodern,€western,€cognitive,€philosophical€quest€to€quantify,€explain€and€analyze€time€wasÐ ˆ$  Ðprobably€not€in€the€purview€of€most€in€the€Bible.€€For€them,€the€holistic,€practical,€communalÐ t  Ðdynamic€of€time€began€with€God€and€creation,€whenever€that€happened€(as€far€back€as€we€canÐ `ü  Ðimagine),€and€impacts€life€in€the€present,€with€the€possibility€of€an€open€future.Ð Lè  Ðà  àThe€Bible€does€contain€elements€which€respond€to€our€Ô_ÔchronometricÔ_Ô€questions,€especiallyÐ 8Ô  Ðfrom€the€time€of€Abraham€onward.€€But€for€the€time€preceding€that€in€particular,€we€shouldÐ $À Ðprobably€not€lock€ourselves€too€tightly€into€any€time€frame€for€earthððs€early€history.€€This€factÐ ¬ Ðmight€provide€the€opportunity€Lawrence€Ô_ÔGeratyÔ_Ô€seeks€when€he€notes:€ð ðAs€far€as€the€Bible€isÐ ü˜ Ðconcerned,€we€may€assign€to€the€interval€between€Creation€and€Abraham€any€length€of€time€thatÐ è„ Ðmay€otherwise€appear€reasonable.€€For€the€kind€of€data€to€pursue€that€task,€however,€we€will€haveÐ Ôp Ðto€turn€to€Godððs€revelation€through€nature€and€historyðð€(Ô_ÔGeratyÔ_Ô:€17).€€Ô_ÔGeratyÔ_Ô€adds:€ð ðFinally,€if€theÐ À\ Ðpurpose€[of€genealogies]€were€chronological,€the€author€kept€it€a€secret.€€Nowhere€does€he€add€upÐ ¬H Ðthe€numbers€or€even€suggest€that€his€readers€do€it.€€And€nowhere€in€the€Bible€does€any€otherÐ ˜4 Ðinspired€writer€deduce€a€chronological€statement€from€these€genealogiesðð€(14).€€In€agreement€isÐ „  ÐRaymond€Ô_ÔCotrellÔ_Ô:€ð ðThe€Bible€does€not€clearly€indicate€the€interval€of€time€since€creation,€and€weÐ p  Ðare€without€any€biblical€basis€for€making€an€issue€of€timeðð€(Ô_ÔCotrellÔ_Ô:€218).Ð \ø Ðà  àMaybe€time€will€tell,€after€all.€€And€perhaps€we€should€make€good€use€of€the€time€weÐ Hä Ðhave€to€explore€some€new€models€which€make€sense€of€the€world€in€which€we€now€live,€modelsÐ 4 Ð Ðbased€on€something€other€than€the€tried€and€untrue€dichotomy€between€long€time€=€evolution€=Ð  !¼ Ðno€divine€role€and€short€time€=€creation€=€divine€intervention.Ð  "¨ ÐÌà  àBut€what€of€all€the€unanswered€questions,€the€dilemmas€raised€by€some€of€theseÐ ä#€  Ðpossibilities?€€That€must€by€why€we€are€all€here!€€We€have€work€to€do€and€what€better€place€thanÐ Ð$l! Ðin€community€and€what€better€way€than€together€and€for€what€better€reasons€than€to€be€absolutelyÐ ¼%X" Ðcritically€honest€with€what€we€see€or€think€we€see€and€to€be€absolutely€faithfully€true€to€God€andÐ ¨&D # Ðwhat€we€know€or€think€we€know€of€him.€€We€need€the€best€that€we€all€can€offer.€€Nothing€lessÐ ”'0!$ Ðthan€the€best€will€do€and€no€one€less€than€all€of€us€who€lay€serious€claims€to€Adventist€faith.Ð €("% ÐÌIsnððt€it€about€time€...€at€least€for€this?Ð X*ô#' ÐÌÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÌÐ  -¸&* Ðà@))'ìàSOURCESˆÐ d ÐÌÔ_ÔBomanÔ_Ô,€T.Ð <Ø Ðà  à1960à0 ` àòòHebrew€Thought€Compared€with€Greekóó.€€New€York:€Norton.Ð( Ä` (#` (# ÐBowman,€R.A.Ð  ° Ðà  à1962à0 ` àGenealogy.€€Pp.€362„365€in€òòThe€Interpreterððs€Dictionary€of€the€Bibleóó,€Vol.€2,€ed.Ð  œ ÐG.A.€Ô_ÔButtrickÔ_Ô.€€Nashville:€Ô_ÔAbingdonÔ_Ô.Ðì ˆ` (#` (# ÐBrown,€F.€(with€Driver,€Ô_ÔS.R.Ô_Ô€and€Briggs,€C.A.)Ð Ø t Ðà  à1977à0 ` àòòA€Hebrew€and€English€Lexicon€of€the€Old€Testamentóó.€€Oxford:€Clarendon.ÐÄ `` (#` (# ÐClark,€D.R.Ð °L  Ðà  à1997à0 ` àFormation€of€the€Old€Testament.€€Pp.€1„12€in€òòIntroducing€the€Bible,€Volume€1:Ð œ8  ÐThe€Old€Testament€and€Ô_ÔIntertestamentalÔ_Ô€Literatureóó,€eds.€Douglas€R.€Clark€andÐ ˆ$  ÐJohn€C.€Brunt.€€Ô_ÔLanhamÔ_Ô,€MD:€University€Press€of€America.Ðt ` (#` (# ÐClark,€D.R.€and€Brunt,€Ô_ÔJ.C.Ô_Ô,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.Ð `ü  Ðà  à1997à0 ` àòòIntroducing€the€Bible,€Volume€1:€The€Old€Testament€and€Ô_ÔIntertestamentalÔ_ÔÐ Lè  ÐLiteratureóó.€€Ô_ÔLanhamÔ_Ô,€MD:€University€Press€of€America.Ð8Ô ` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔCotrellÔ_Ô,€R.F.Ð $À Ðà  à2000à0 ` àInspiration€and€Authority€of€the€Bible€in€Relation€to€Phenomena€of€the€NaturalÐ ¬ ÐWorld.€€Pp.€195„221€in€òòCreation€Reconsidered:€Scientific,€Biblical,€andÐ ü˜ ÐTheological€Perspectivesóó,€ed.€Ô_ÔJ.L.Ô_Ô€Hayes.€€Roseville,€CA:€Association€ofÐ è„ ÐAdventist€Forums.ÐÔp` (#` (# ÐDavies,€P.Ð À\ Ðà  à1995à0 ` àòòAbout€Time:€Einsteinððs€Unfinished€Revolutionóó.€€New€York:€Simon€&€Schuster.ЬH` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔDellingÔ_Ô,€G.Ð ˜4 Ðà  à1965à0 ` àòòÔ_ÔKairosÔ_Ôóó.€€Pp.€455„464€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€in€the€New€Testamentóó,€Vol.€III,Ð „  Ðed.€G.€Friedrich.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔG.W.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔBromileyÔ_Ô.€€Grand€Rapids:€Ô_ÔEerdmansÔ_ÔÐp ` (#` (# Ðà  à1974à0 ` àòòÔ_ÔChronosÔ_Ôóó.€€Pp.€581„593€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€in€the€New€Testamentóó,€Vol.€IX,Ð \ø Ðed.€G.€Friedrich.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔG.W.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔBromileyÔ_Ô.€€Grand€Rapids:€Ô_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.ÐHä` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔDonfriedÔ_Ô,€K.P.Ð 4 Ð Ðà  à1992à0 ` àChronology.€€Pp.€1002„1022€in€òòThe€Anchor€Bible€Dictionaryóó,€Vol.€1,€ed.€Ô_ÔD.N.Ô_ÔÐ  !¼ ÐFreedman.€€New€York:€Doubleday.Ð "¨` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔDybdahlÔ_Ô,€J.Ð ø"” Ðà  à1997à0 ` àCultural€Background€and€World€View€of€the€Old€Testament.€€Pp.€63„70€inÐ ä#€  ÐòòIntroducing€the€Bible,€Volume€1:€The€Old€Testament€and€Ô_ÔIntertestamentalÔ_ÔÐ Ð$l! ÐLiteratureóó,€eds.€Douglas€R.€Clark€and€John€C.€Brunt.€€Ô_ÔLanhamÔ_Ô,€MD:€UniversityÐ ¼%X" ÐPress€of€America.Ш&D #` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔFretheimÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔT.E.Ô_ÔÐ ”'0!$ Ðà  à1969à0 ` àòòCreation,€Fall,€and€Floodóó.€€Minneapolis:€Augsburg.Ѐ("%` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔGasterÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔT.H.Ô_ÔÐ l)#& Ðà  à1962à0 ` àCosmogony.€€Pp.€702„709€in€òòThe€Interpreterððs€Dictionary€of€the€Bibleóó,€Vol.€1,€ed.Ð X*ô#' ÐG.A.€Ô_ÔButtrickÔ_Ô.€€Nashville:€Ô_ÔAbingdonÔ_Ô.ÐD+à$(` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔGeratyÔ_Ô,€L.Ð 0,Ì%) Ðà  à1974à0 ` àThe€Genesis€Genealogies€as€an€Index€of€Time.€€òòSpectrumóó€6/1„2:€5„18.Ð-¸&*` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔGivsonÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔJ.C.L.Ô_ÔÐ d Ðà  à1998à0 ` àòòLanguage€and€Imagery€in€the€Old€Testamentóó.€€Peabody,€MA:€Ô_ÔHendricksonÔ_Ô.ÐPì` (#` (# ÐHals,€R.Ð <Ø Ðà  à1980à0 ` àòòGrace€and€Faith€in€the€Old€Testamentóó.€€Minneapolis:€Augsburg.Ð( Ä` (#` (# ÐHawking,€S.Ð  ° Ðà  à1998à0 ` àòòA€Brief€History€of€Time.€€The€Updated€and€Expanded€Tenth€Anniversary€Editionóó.€Ð  œ ÐNew€York:€Bantam.Ðì ˆ` (#` (# ÐHayes,€Ô_ÔJ.L.Ô_Ô,€ed.Ð Ø t Ðà  à2000à0 ` àòòCreation€Reconsidered:€Scientific,€Biblical,€and€Theological€Perspectivesóó.€Ð Ä ` ÐRoseville,€CA:€Association€of€Adventist€Forums.аL ` (#` (# ÐHorn,€Ô_ÔS.H.Ô_ÔÐ œ8  Ðà  à1979à0 ` àCan€the€Bible€Establish€the€Age€of€the€Earth?€€òòSpectrumóó€10/3:€15„20.Ј$ ` (#` (# ÐHouse,€C.L.Ð t  Ðà  à1988à0 ` àòòThe€Successive,€Corresponding€Epochal€Arrangement€of€theÐ `ü  Ðð ðÔ_ÔChronogenealogiesÔ_Ôðð€of€Genesis€5€and€11B€in€the€Three€Textual€Traditions:Ð Lè  ÐÔ_ÔLXXAÔ_Ô,€SP,€and€MT.óó€€Dissertation:€Andrews€University.Ð8Ô ` (#` (# ÐJenni,€E.Ð $À Ðà  à1962à0 ` àTime.€€Pp.€642„649€in€òòThe€Interpreterððs€Dictionary€of€the€Bibleóó,€Vol.€4,€ed.€G.A.Ð ¬ ÐÔ_ÔButtrickÔ_Ô.€€Nashville:€Ô_ÔAbingdonÔ_ÔÐü˜` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔKronholmÔ_Ô,€T.Ð è„ Ðà  à2001à0 ` àòò`Etóó.€€Pp.€434„451€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€of€the€Old€Testamentóó,€Vol.€XI,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.Ð Ôp ÐÔ_ÔG.JÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBotterweckÔ_Ô;€H.€Ô_ÔRinggrenÔ_Ô;€H„J€Ô_ÔFabryÔ_Ô.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔD.E.Ô_Ô€Green.€€Grand€Rapids,€MI:Ð À\ ÐÔ_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.ЬH` (#` (# Ðà  à2003aà0 ` àòòÔ_ÔQedemÔ_Ôóó.€€Pp.€505„511€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€of€the€Old€Testamentóó,€Vol.€XII,Ð ˜4 ÐÔ_ÔedsÔ_Ô.€Ô_ÔG.JÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBotterweckÔ_Ô;€H.€Ô_ÔRinggrenÔ_Ô;€H„J€Ô_ÔFabryÔ_Ô.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔD.W.Ô_Ô€Stott.€€Grand€Rapids,Ð „  ÐMI:€Ô_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.Ðp ` (#` (# Ðà  à2003bà0 ` àòòÔ_ÔQadamÔ_Ôóó.€€Pp.€511„515€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€of€the€Old€Testamentóó,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.€Ô_ÔG.JÔ_ÔÐ \ø ÐÔ_ÔBotterweckÔ_Ô;€H.€Ô_ÔRinggrenÔ_Ô;€H„J€Ô_ÔFabryÔ_Ô.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔD.W.Ô_Ô€Stott.€€Grand€Rapids,€MI:Ð Hä ÐÔ_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.Ð4 Ð` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔLaBiancaÔ_Ô,€Ô_Ô,SÔ_Ô.€and€Younker,€R.W.Ð  !¼ Ðà  à1998à0 ` àThe€Kingdoms€of€Ammon,€Ô_ÔMoabÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEdomÔ_Ô:€òòThe€Archaeology€of€Society€in€LateÐ  "¨ ÐBronze/Iron€Age€Ô_ÔTransjordanÔ_Ô€(ca.€1400„500€Ô_ÔBCEÔ_Ô)óó.€€Pp.€399„415€in€TheÐ ø"” ÐArchaeology€of€Society€in€the€Holy€Land,€ed.€Ô_ÔT.E.Ô_Ô€Levy.€€London:€LeicesterÐ ä#€  ÐUniversity.ÐÐ$l!` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔOngÔ_Ô,€W.Ð ¼%X" Ðà  à1982à0 ` àòòÔ_ÔOralityÔ_Ô€and€Literacy:€The€Ô_ÔTechnologizingÔ_Ô€of€the€Wordóó.€€London:€Ô_ÔMethuenÔ_Ô.Ш&D #` (#` (# ÐOtto,€R.Ð ”'0!$ Ðà  à1950à0 ` àòòThe€Idea€of€the€Holyóó.€€London:€Oxford€University.Ѐ("%` (#` (# ÐPedersen,€J.Ð l)#& Ðà  à1964à0 ` àòòIsrael:€Its€Life€and€Cultureóó.€€London:€Ô_ÔCumberlegeÔ_Ô.ÐX*ô#'` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔPolkinghorneÔ_Ô,€J.Ð D+à$( Ðà  à1998à0 ` àòòScience€&€Theology:€An€Introductionóó.€€Minneapolis:€Fortress.Ð0,Ì%)` (#` (# ÐÐ -¸&* ÐÔ_ÔPreussÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔH.D.Ô_ÔÐ d Ðà  à1999à0 ` àòò`Ô_ÔOlamÔ_Ôóó.€€Pp.€530„545€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€of€the€Old€Testamentóó,€Vol.€X,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.Ð Pì ÐÔ_ÔG.JÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBotterweckÔ_Ô;€H.€Ô_ÔRinggrenÔ_Ô;€H„J€Ô_ÔFabryÔ_Ô.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔD.W.Ô_Ô€Stott.€€Grand€Rapids,€MI:Ð <Ø ÐÔ_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.Ð( Ä` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔSbÔ_Ô,€M.Ð  ° Ðà  à2003à0 ` àòòPa`amóó.€€Pp.€44„49€in€òòTheological€Dictionary€of€the€Old€Testamentóó,€Vol.€XII,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.Ð  œ ÐÔ_ÔG.JÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBotterweckÔ_Ô;€H.€Ô_ÔRinggrenÔ_Ô;€H„J€Ô_ÔFabryÔ_Ô.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔD.W.Ô_Ô€Stott.€€Grand€Rapids,€MI:Ð ì ˆ ÐÔ_ÔEerdmansÔ_Ô.ÐØ t` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔThieleÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔE.W.Ô_ÔÐ Ä ` Ðà  à1977à0 ` àòòA€Chronology€of€the€Hebrew€Kingsóó.€€Grand€Rapids:€Ô_ÔZondervanÔ_Ô.аL ` (#` (# ÐThompson,€Ô_ÔM.E.W.Ô_ÔÐ œ8  Ðà  à1982à0 ` àòòSituation€and€Theology:€Old€Testament€Interpretations€of€the€Ô_ÔSyroÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔEphraimiteÔ_ÔÐ ˆ$  ÐWaróó.€€Sheffield:€Almond.Ðt ` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔWestermannÔ_Ô,€C.Ð `ü  Ðà  à1992à0 ` àòòGenesis:€An€Introductionóó.€€Trans.€Ô_ÔJ.J.ScullionÔ_Ô.€€Minneapolis:€Fortress.ÐLè ` (#` (# ÐWhite,€E.G.Ð 8Ô  Ðà  à1896à0 ` àòòThoughts€from€the€Mount€of€Blessingóó.€€1955€Edition.€€Mountain€View,€CA:Ð $À ÐPacific€Press.Ь` (#` (# ÐWilson,€R.R.Ð ü˜ Ðà  à1992à0 ` àGenealogy,€Genealogies.€€Pp.€929„932€in€òòThe€Anchor€Bible€Dictionaryóó,€Vol.€2,€ed.Ð è„ ÐÔ_ÔD.N.Ô_Ô€Freedman.€€New€York:€Doubleday.ÐÔp` (#` (# ÐÌÌÌÌÌÐ  \ø ÐÔ‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔà@µµ%ìàAPPENDIX€1ˆÐ d ÐÌÔ#†XñÐXXXÏѸ1#ÔThe€following€comments€by€Douglas€R.€Clark€form€part€of€Chapter€1€ofòò€Introducing€the€Bible,Ð <Ø ÐVolume€1:€The€Old€Testament€and€Ô_ÔIntertestamentalÔ_Ô€Literatureóó,€eds.€Douglas€R.€Clark€and€JohnÐ ( Ä ÐC.€Brunt€(Ô_ÔLanhamÔ_Ô,€MD:€University€Press€of€America,€1997),€pp.€4„8,€and€attempt€to€demonstrateÐ  ° Ðthe€development€of€the€Bible€from€oral€to€written€and€canonical€stages,€including€reflectionsÐ  œ Ðabout€the€manner€in€which€inspiration€might€have€worked€in€various€types€of€Old€TestamentÐ ì ˆ Ðliterature.Ô‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔÐ Ø t ÐÌÔ#†XñÐXXXÏѰ4#ÔÔ‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔòòò òDevelopmentó óóóÐ °L  Ðà  àThe€development€of€the€Hebrew€Bible€is€complex€in€its€history,€a€history€we€only€knowÐ ˜4  Ðin€part.€€In€order€to€appreciate€the€entire€process,€we€must€begin€before€the€written€text€itself.€€1)Ð „  ÐVery€likely€the€vast€majority€of€what€we€now€read€in€Scripture€originally€found€expression€inÐ p  Ðòòoral€formóó.€€The€ancients,€in€other€words,€first€òòtoldóó€stories,€òòsangóó€psalms,€òòchantedóó€hymns,€òòpreachedóóÐ \ø  Ðprophetic€sermons,€òòproclaimedóó€ð ðwoeðð€oracles€and€salvation€speeches,€òòrecountedóó€historicalÐ Hä  Ðevents,€òòrecalledóó€proverbial€sayings,€òòpondered€aloudóó€theological€themes,€òòsharedóó€vision€reports,Ð 4Ð  Ðòòspunóó€allegories,€òòannouncedóó€legal€proscriptions.€€Many€scholars€today€have€been€careful€to€drawÐ  ¼ Ðattention€to€the€indicators€of€Ô_ÔoralityÔ_Ô€within€the€written€texts€of€Scriptureð"ða€host€of€poeticÐ  ¨ Ðmemory€devices,€stylistic€tools,€narrative€techniques,€etc.€€These€all€remind€us€that€most€of€theÐ ø” ÐBible€was€first€spoken€long€before€the€resulting€written€texts€came€about.€€They€also€remind€usÐ ä€ Ðthat€sensitivity€to€the€dynamics€of€Ô_ÔoralityÔ_Ô€can€explain€some€of€the€repetitive€and€otherwiseÐ Ðl Ðpuzzling€elements€we€often€find€in€Scripture€and€that€listening€to€the€text€being€read€may€offer€itsÐ ¼X Ðown€set€of€rewards.€€It€is€at€the€oral€stage€of€communication€that€prophets,€poets,€priests,€theÐ ¨D Ðpeople,€sages€and€storytellers€initially€share€their€observations€growing€out€of€encounters€with€theÐ ”0 Ðdivine.Ð € Ðà  àAlthough€it€is€impossible€to€detail€precisely€the€shape€and€nature€of€theseÐ l Ðencountersð"ðencounters€we€would€identify€as€the€first€steps€in€the€inspiration€processð"ðwe€canÐ Xô Ðmake€some€general€observations€stemming€from€the€biblical€material€itself.€€Evidently€GodÐ Dà Ðutilized€a€variety€of€methods€of€communicating€with€humanity.€€If€one€considers€the€basicÐ 0 Ì Ðcategories€of€Old€Testament€speech€and€literature€(prophecy,€apocalyptic,€law,€history,€story,Ð !¸ Ðwisdom€types€and€song)€this€becomes€decidedly€clear.Ð "¤ Ðà  àòòProphecyóó€and€apocalyptic€literature€fit€more€the€traditional€definitions€of€inspiration:€GodÐ ô" Ðcommunicated€via€some€type€of€encounter,€like€audition€or€dream,€with€the€prophet€(inspiration);Ð à#|  Ðhe€spoke€through€the€prophet€to€the€people€(revelation);€and€he€prepared€the€people€to€receive€hisÐ Ì$h! Ðmessage€from€the€prophet€(illumination).€€Typically,€when€prophets€speak€they€begin€theirÐ ¸%T" Ðproclamation€with:€ð ðThus€says€the€Lord€...ðð€which€statement€most€scholars€identify€as€theÐ ¤&@ # Ðð ðmessenger€formula.ðð€€Thus,€prophets€speak€on€behalf€of€someone€else,€that€is,€of€God;€they€areÐ ',!$ Ðhis€spokespersons.€€ð ðThe€word€of€the€Lord€cameðð€to€them.Ð |("% Ðà  àThe€òòapocalypticóó€material€in€the€Old€Testament,€especially€in€the€book€of€Daniel,€normallyÐ h)#& Ðstems€from€a€visionary€encounter€with€the€divine.€€Apocalyptic€literature€claims€direct€divineÐ T*ð#' Ðdisplay€and€transmission€to€its€recipientð"ðð ðDaniel€had€a€dream€and€visions€of€his€head€as€he€layÐ @+Ü$( Ðin€bed.€€Then€he€wrote€down€the€dream:€I,€Daniel,€saw€in€my€vision€by€night€...€ðð€(Ô € ÔDan€7:1f).€Ð ,,È%) ÐAlthough€apocalyptic€(somewhat€unlike€traditional€prophetic€material)€typically€aspires€to€anÐ -´&* Ðotherworldly€arena,€one€beyond€the€normal€boundaries€of€time€and€space,€its€inspiration€processÐ d Ðresembles€closely€that€of€the€prophets.€€However,€the€remainder€of€the€Old€Testament€does€notÐ Pì Ðreflect€this€model€of€inspiration.€€Ð <Ø Ðà  àFrom€the€point€of€view€of€the€ancients,€all€òòlawsóó€derive€directly€from€the€deity,€no€matterÐ ( Ä Ðwhat€their€content€or€nature.€€In€fact,€most€law€codes€from€the€ancient€world€depict€eitherÐ  ° Ðnarratively€or€graphically€the€divine€source€of€the€material.€€This€is€clearly€the€case€withÐ  œ Ðð ðapodicticðð€laws,€which€need€no€additional€authority€or€motivation€for€keeping€them;€God€said€itÐ ì ˆ Ðand€that€is€all€that€counts.€€The€Decalogue,€for€example,€consists€of€apodictic€laws€spoken€byÐ Ø t ÐGod.€€But€even€ð ðcasuisticðð€or€case€laws€by€definition€have€divine€origin,€laws€about€oxen€whichÐ Ä ` Ðgore€neighbors€and€donkeys€wandering€aimlessly€around,€apparently€lost.€€These€represent€casesÐ °L  Ðthe€ancients€experienced€and€for€which€they€provided€and€collected€laws€deriving€fromÐ œ8  Ðresponsible€moral€principles.€€In€some€way,€God€was€at€work€in€the€process€of€formulation€andÐ ˆ$  Ðtransmission,€but€apparently€not€through€traditionally€understood€channels€of€dreams€and€visions.Ð t  Ðà  àThe€next€three€categories€involve€the€collection€of€materials€as€an€important€part€of€theÐ `ü  Ðinspiration€process.€€The€òòhistoricalóó€material€in€the€Old€Testament€(as€in€books€like€Joshua,Ð Lè  ÐJudges,€Samuel,€Kings,€Chronicles,€etc.)€clearly€derives€from€research€into€annals€of€courtÐ 8Ô  Ðrecorders€and€archivists.€€We€need€not€expect€visions€in€the€night€to€guide€these€devout€historiansÐ $À Ð(either€the€original€scribes€or€the€researchers)€in€writing€what€they€did;€rather,€under€inspirationÐ ¬ Ðthey€drew€sources€together€(oral€and€written€sources)€to€use€in€constructing€a€theologicallyÐ ü˜ Ðhelpful€accounting€of€events€involving€God€and€his€people.Ð è„ Ðà  àòòStoriesóó€also€were€gathered€over€time€and€retold€again€and€again€to€audiences€in€homes,€atÐ Ôp Ðworship€services€and€in€public€places€like€under€the€gnarled€old€oak€tree€south€of€town.€€In€fact,€itÐ À\ Ðappears€that€stories€provided€the€best€and€most€often€used€form€of€communication€in€the€ancientÐ ¬H Ðworld€and€in€the€Bible.€€Recounted€with€the€goals€of€edification€and€entertainment,€the€biblicalÐ ˜4 Ðnarratives€captured€creatively€and€unforgettably€the€redemptive€lessons€intended€for€GodððsÐ „  Ðpeople€to€learn.€€The€humor,€irony,€subtle€twists€and€turns,€plays€on€words€and€inventive€plotÐ p  Ðdevelopment€contributed€to€sealing€the€message€in€listenersðð€minds€in€ways€propositionalÐ \ø Ðdeclarations€could€never€accomplish.€€Story,€then,€was€also€a€medium€of€divine€communication.Ð Hä Ðà  àòòWisdomóó€literature€represents€another€kind€of€collection€process€which,€like€the€others,Ð 4 Ð Ðdoes€not€derive€from€dreams€or€visions,€but€from€other€means€of€encounter€and€inspiration.€€TheÐ  !¼ Ðancient€sages€collected€sayings€of€the€wise€and€made€astute€observations€regarding€the€worldÐ  "¨ Ðaround€them.€€Both€the€practical€wisdom€of€Proverbs€and€the€more€speculative€wisdom€treatisesÐ ø"” Ðof€Job€and€Ecclesiastes€stem€from€careful€observations€of€the€good€and€the€bad€peopleÐ ä#€  Ðexperienced€daily€and€throughout€their€lives.€€The€role€of€God€in€this€process€is€again€notÐ Ð$l! Ðnecessarily€that€of€direct€intervention.Ð ¼%X" Ðà  àBiblical€literature€we€designate€as€òòsongóóð"ðPsalms,€Lamentations,€Song€of€Songs€(Song€ofÐ ¨&D # ÐSolomon)ð"ðcomes€into€being€in€a€different€way€than€any€of€the€categories€mentioned€so€far.€€IfÐ ”'0!$ ÐÔ_ÔWestermannÔ_Ô€is€correct,€song€material€derives€as€the€response€to€God€from€a€worshipingÐ €("% Ðcommunity,€not€as€Godððs€direct€word€to€it€(Ô#†XñÐXXXÏÑ5#ÔÔ‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔClaus€Ô_ÔWestermannÔ_Ô,€òòThe€Psalms:€Structure,€Content€&Ð l)#& ÐMessageóó€[Minneapolis:€Augsburg,€1980],€pp€10„11Ô#†XñÐXXXÏÑU#ÔÔ‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔ).€€The€alternating€rhythms€of€praise€andÐ X*ô#' Ðlament€in€this€literature€remind€us€that€the€faithful€are€reacting€and€responding€to€how€they€senseÐ D+à$( ÐGod€has€or€has€not€been€at€work€among€them.€€In€some€way€God€superintends€this€process,€butÐ 0,Ì%) Ðagain€not€by€spelling€out€and€transcribing€for€the€saints€how€they€should€or€should€not€respond€toÐ -¸&* Ðhim.Ð d Ðà  à2)€We€turn€to€the€second€step€in€the€development€of€the€biblical€material.€€The€stage€atÐ Pì Ðwhich€speech€takes€òòwritten€formóó€and€becomes€the€text€itself€was€complex€in€the€ancient€world.€Ð <Ø ÐThe€notion€of€ð ðauthorshipðð€includes€not€only€individual€writers€who€decide€to€publish€a€piece€ofÐ ( Ä Ðliterature;€it€also€encompasses€community€productions€of€written€material,€particularly€withÐ  ° Ðcertain€types€of€literature.€€As€just€noted,€the€Psalms,€for€instance,€spring€from€a€worshipingÐ  œ Ðcommunityððs€sense€of€divine€presence€or€abandonment.€€These€are€the€products€of€believers€asÐ ì ˆ Ðthey€grapple€to€meld€life€and€faith.€€The€songs€go€by€the€name€of€hymns€and€ð ðcommunityððÐ Ø t Ðlaments.Ð Ä ` Ðà  à3)€A€process€of€òòeditingóó€(or€ð ðredactionðð)€likely€followed.€€The€biblical€books€as€we€nowÐ °L  Ðhave€them€evidence€a€number€of€editorial€activities.€€For€instance,€the€prophetic€books€normallyÐ œ8  Ðbegin€with€a€note€setting€the€time€and€place€of€the€prophetððs€ministry.€€In€addition,€the€speechesÐ ˆ$  Ðare€often€organized€into€a€pattern€of€a)€speeches€against€Israel€or€Judah,€b)€oracles€against€foreignÐ t  Ðnations€and€c)€salvation€speeches.€€Often€books€of€the€Bible€contain€explanatory€notes€to€helpÐ `ü  Ðreaders€of€a€later€time€understand€the€meaning€of€unusual€words€or€practices€(Ô € ÔRuth€4:7f;€Ô € Ô1€SamÐ Lè  Ð9:9).€€Sometimes€editors€insert€additional€material€for€the€sake€of€completing€a€story€(Jer€52)€or,Ð 8Ô  Ðas€many€scholars€would€argue,€in€order€to€help€a€later€audience€find€meaning€and€value€in€earlierÐ $À Ðproclamations€(Ô € ÔAmos€9:4b„15;€Isa€40ff;€Ô € ÔEzek€16:44ff;€Zech€9„14).Ð ¬ Ðà  à4)€òòTransmission€of€the€textsóó€by€scribes€constitutes€another€step€in€the€BibleððsÐ ü˜ Ðdevelopment.€€More€often€than€not€these€somewhat€professional€guilds€of€scribes€performed€theirÐ è„ Ðwork€with€extreme€care.€€Scribes€were€human€like€all€of€us,€however,€and€in€their€desire€toÐ Ôp Ðtransmit€the€Word€of€God,€especially€without€the€luxury€of€modern€duplicating€technology,€theyÐ À\ Ðnaturally€and€inadvertently€misread€or€misheard€on€occasion.€€Variants€thus€arose€among€ancientÐ ¬H Ðmanuscripts,€creating€the€need€for€ð ðtextual€criticismðð€(see€below).€€By€and€large,€the€differencesÐ ˜4 Ðare€not€crucial€to€an€appreciation€for€nor€interpretations€of€the€biblical€narrative€or€basic€beliefs.€€Ð „  Ðà  àFrom€ca.€500€to€1000€C.E.,€scribes€known€as€Ô_ÔMasoretesÔ_Ô€constructed€a€system€(actuallyÐ p  Ðmore€than€one)€of€vowel€points€which€were€added€to€the€consonantal€Hebrew€text.€€TheÐ \ø ÐÔ_ÔMasoretesÔ_Ô€were€extremely€protective€of€and€meticulously€careful€with€the€written€text€handedÐ Hä Ðdown€to€them,€attempting€to€preserve€it€at€all€costs.€€Until€the€discovery€of€the€Dead€Sea€ScrollsÐ 4 Ð Ð(DSS)€in€1947,€the€Ô_ÔMasoreticÔ_Ô€Text€(MT)€from€the€ninth€and€tenth€centuries€C.E.€constituted€theÐ  !¼ Ðoldest€Hebrew€text€available.Ð  "¨ Ðà  à5)€Finally,€the€biblical€books€found€their€way€€into€other€languages€by€means€ofÐ ø"” Ðòòtranslationóó.€€Major€translations€include€the€Septuagint€(Greekð"ðalso€known€as€LXX),€theÐ ä#€  ÐÔ_ÔTargumsÔ_Ô€(Aramaic),€the€Ô_ÔPeshittaÔ_Ô€(Ô_ÔSyriacÔ_Ô),€and€the€Latin€Vulgate.€€(Although€not€a€translation€asÐ Ð$l! Ðsuch,€the€Samaritan€Pentateuch€represents€a€significant€variation€from€the€Hebrew€Bible,Ð ¼%X" Ðcontaining€several€thousand€readings€which€differ.)€€The€Septuagint€provided€the€basis€forÐ ¨&D # Ðseveral€secondary€translations:€Latin€(Ô_ÔVetusÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLatinaÔ_Ô),€Ô_ÔSyriacÔ_Ô€(Ô_ÔSyroÔ_Ô„Palestinian€translations),Ð ”'0!$ ÐArmenian,€Coptic€(Ô_ÔSahidicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔBohairicÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔAkhmimicÔ_Ô),€Georgian,€Old€Slavic,€Ô_ÔEthiopicÔ_Ô,€Gothic,€andÐ €("% ÐArabic€(Tov,€1992a€134„154).€€Our€focus€in€this€introduction€to€the€Old€Testament€resides€in€theÐ l)#& ÐHebrew€Bible,€but€the€LXX€in€particular€often€represents€important€variant€readings.Ð X*ô#' Ðà  àIn€reconstructing€the€history€and€development€of€the€Bible,€we€cannot€simply€assume€aÐ D+à$( Ðsequential€unfolding€of€the€five€steps€just€mentioned.€€A€number€of€these€steps€were€occurringÐ 0,Ì%) Ðsimultaneously€as€ancient€believers€attempted€to€transmit€the€divine€word€faithfully€toÐ -¸&* Ðsubsequent€generations€as€well€as€to€their€own.€€Widely€diverging€factors€played€a€role€in€thisÐ d Ðprocess,€many€for€which€we€can€only€trace€faint€outlines.€€In€ways€even€more€difficult€to€defineÐ Pì Ðprecisely,€God,€we€would€assert,€somehow€superintended€the€process,€interweaving€his€effortsÐ <Ø Ðwith€those€of€humanity€to€produce€the€Bible€as€we€now€have€it.Ô#†XñÐXXXÏÑ_V#ÔÐ  ( Ä Ðà@µµ%ìàAPPENDIX€2ˆÐ d ÐÌò òÔ‡XÏÑXXXñÐÔà@º º ìàCultural€Background€and€World€View€of€the€Old€TestamentÔ_Ô׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_ԈР<Ø Ðà@RR#ìàJon€L.€Ô_ÔDybdahlÔ_ÔòòˆÐ ( Ä ÐÌNEED€TO€STUDY€CULTUREó óóóÐ ü ˜ Ðà  àWe€live€in€a€world€full€of€diverse€cultures€and€peoples.€€Com„Ô_ÔmunicatingÔ_Ô€well€with€thoseÐ ä € Ðof€a€differing€culture€demands€an€understanding€of€their€ways€and€customs.€€Good€missionariesÐ Ð l Ðrealize€this€and€take€the€time€to€study€the€Ô_ÔculÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔtureÔ_Ô€of€those€they€desire€to€reach€with€their€Ô_ÔmesÔ_Ô„Ð ¼ X Ðsage.€Sometimes€it€takes€years€of€language€study€and€living€next€door€to€fit€one€to€relateÐ ¨D  Ðeffectively€with€another€culture.Ð ”0  Ðà  àWhat€many€people€fail€to€realize€is€that€the€culture€of€the€Old€Testament€is€more€differentÐ €  Ðfrom€todayððs€Western€culture€of€Europe€and€North€America€than€are€most€cultures€to€whichÐ l  ÐWestern€missionaries€are€currently€sent.€€Understanding€what€is€really€going€on€in€the€OldÐ Xô  ÐTestament€takes€at€least€as€much€effort€and€study€as€it€does€to€be€an€effective€AmericanÐ Dà  Ðmissionary€in€Africa€or€an€African€missionary€in€North€America.€€Simply€recognizing€this€factÐ 0Ì  Ðcan€go€a€long€way€toward€helping€us€be€more€sensitive€to€what€we€read€in€the€Old€Testament€andÐ ¸ Ðless€likely€to€criticize€things€that€seem€strange.Ð ¤ Ðà  àThe€best€way€to€study€the€Old€Testament€is€for€readers€to€picture€themselves€going€asÐ ô Ðmissionaries€to€ancient€Israel.€€Good€missionaries€do€not€speak€and€propound€their€ideas€untilÐ à| Ðthey€have€listened€to€and€learned€from€what€the€host€culture€believes€and€thinks.€€PoorÐ Ìh Ðmissionaries,€on€the€other€hand,€tend€to€be€arrogant€and€feel€themselves€culturally€superior.€€TheyÐ ¸T Ðare€quick€to€find€fault€and€poke€fun.€€They€hastily€evaluate€others€in€the€light€of€what€theyÐ ¤@ Ðassume€to€be€true.€€We€should€be€like€good€missionaries€as€we€take€the€cross„cultural€journeyÐ , Ðinto€the€Old€Testament.€€The€following€pages€are€meant€to€aid€in€that€journey.Ð | Ðòòò òÌBASIC€GUIDELINES€FOR€CULTURAL€UNDERSTANDINGó óóóÐ Pì Ðà  àCulture€consists€of€learned€behavior.€€Biology€says€we€must€eat.€€Culture€tells€us€what,Ð 8Ô Ðwhen€and€how€to€eat.€€It€leads€us€to€sit€or€stand€or€lie€down€when€we€eat.€€The€same€culture€tellsÐ $ À Ðus€how€to€express€joy€about€eating.€€For€some€the€expression€may€be€words€of€thanks,€for€othersÐ !¬ Ðit€may€be€loud€burps€and€belches€or€obvious€smacking€of€oneððs€lips.€€In€other€words,€culture€isÐ ü!˜ Ðnon„biological€behavior.€€The€following€guidelines€should€be€kept€in€mind€as€we€seek€toÐ è"„ Ðunderstand€culture.Ð Ô#p  ÐÌòòò òStudying€cultures€as€whole,€unified€systemsó óóóÐ ¬%H" Ðà  àThis€means€that€cultures€fit€together€like€the€elements€in€a€chemical€equation.€€If€a€singleÐ ”&0 # Ðelement€is€altered€it€affects€the€whole€equation€and€all€the€other€elements.€€This€principle€worksÐ €'!$ Ðboth€in€our€evaluations€of€Israelite€culture€and€in€our€attempts€to€follow€Israelite€practices€in€ourÐ l("% Ðlives.€€We€canððt€take€out€isolated€elements€and€expect€them€to€work€in€the€same€way€in€aÐ X)ô"& Ðdifferent€culture€or€ð ðequationðð€because€a€whole€interrelated€system€is€involved.Ð d Ðà  àAn€example€would€be€the€practice€of€charging€interest€on€loans.€€Suppose€a€person€says,Ð Pì Ðð ðI€think€the€ancient€Hebrews€did€a€good€thing€in€treating€their€relatives€well,€but€they€were€crazyÐ <Ø Ðto€lend€at€no€interest€and€cancel€debts€every€seven€years.ðð€€This€piecemeal€approach€will€notÐ ( Ä Ðwork€well.€€Part€of€the€system€of€properly€caring€for€relatives€was€the€monetary€help€theyÐ  ° Ðreceived€by€canceling€debts.€€The€non„charging€of€interest€was€part€of€that€whole€system.€Ð  œ ÐTreating€relatives€well€requires€making€a€whole€system€that€fits€with€that€goal,€not€just€importingÐ ì ˆ Ðone€element.Ð Ø t Ðà  àOn€the€other€hand,€someone€may€say,€ð ðI€think€the€Israelite€practice€of€not€chargingÐ Ä ` Ðinterest€is€a€good€one€that€we€should€follow€now.ðð€€While€this€sounds€nice,€and€could€perhaps€beÐ °L  Ðdone€on€an€individual€or€special„case€basis,€to€adopt€it€widely€would€radically€change€our€wholeÐ œ8  Ðeconomic€system.€€Some€may€rightfully€argue€that€this€should€be€done,€but€we€should€at€leastÐ ˆ$  Ðrealize€the€implications€of€such€a€proposal.Ð t  ÐÌòòò òUnderstanding€whole€cultural€systems€before€judging€and€evaluating€cultural€practicesó óóóÐ Lè  Ðà  àStudents€of€Scripture€should€take€the€time€to€investigate€cultural€differences€andÐ 4Ð  Ðdemonstrate€an€openness€to€them€that€allows€for€a€more€complete€understanding€before€makingÐ  ¼ Ðcriticisms.€€An€example€of€hasty€judgment€arises€in€connection€with€the€practice€of€dowry€andÐ  ¨ Ðbride„price.€€Payment€of€money€in€connection€with€marriage€is€not€only€a€common€biblicalÐ ø” Ðpractice,€but€is€also€widely€followed€in€many€cultures€today.€€Americans€and€Europeans€areÐ ä€ Ðusually€horrified€at€this€custom€which€to€them€denigrates€women,€turning€them€into€a€commodityÐ Ðl Ðto€be€bought€and€sold.€€On€the€contrary,€this€custom€in€most€cases€functions€to€enhance€the€valueÐ ¼X Ðof€women€and€form€a€kind€of€insurance€policy€for€them.€€In€the€cultural€systems€which€containÐ ¨D Ðthis€practice€marriages€tend€to€be€stronger€and€longer€lasting€than€in€the€very€cultures€whichÐ ”0 Ðcriticize€the€custom.€€I€can€still€remember€the€laughs€I€got€in€the€Ô_ÔHmongÔ_Ô€tribal€area€of€ThailandÐ € Ðwhen€I€told€nationals€there€that€my€wifeððs€family€had€paid€for€our€wedding.€€When€they€heardÐ l Ðthat€this€was€the€usual€American€custom,€their€response€was€that€American€women€must€not€beÐ Xô Ðworth€very€much.€€The€Ô_ÔHmongÔ_Ô€all€had€to€work€long€and€hard€to€pay€their€bride„price.€€Some,€inÐ Dà Ðfact,€were€still€in€debt,€even€though€they€had€been€married€for€several€years.€€They€wondered€whyÐ 0 Ì Ðanyone€in€our€system€would€want€female€babies€since€they€cost€so€much€extra€money!Ð !¸ Ðà  àÌòòò òAssessing€elements€of€various€cultures€as€different€instead€of€right€or€wrongó óóóÐ ô" Ðà  àPeople€often€make€moral€judgments€on€certain€aspects€of€a€culture,€deeming€certainÐ Ü#x  Ðpractices€as€evil€or€righteous.€€While€there€are€occasions€demanding€such€evaluations,€often€theÐ È$d! Ðquestion€is€simply€one€of€difference€rather€than€of€superiority€or€inferiority.Ð ´%P" Ðà  àMarriage€practices€often€provide€a€good€example€of€this€problem.€€In€Old€TestamentÐ  &< # Ðcultureð"ðand€still€in€many€countries€todayð"ðmarriages€are€arranged.€€Usually€this€is€done€byÐ Œ'(!$ Ðparents€or€a€close,€older€relative.€€In€Western€cultures€young€people€of€marriageable€age€chooseÐ x("% Ðtheir€own€marriage€partner.€€A€person€would€be€wrong€to€believe€that€either€of€these€marriageÐ d)#& Ðmethods€was€inherently€evil.€€Both€methods€have€been€used€successfully€and€both€have€beenÐ P*ì#' Ðabused.€€They€are€simply€different.Ð <+Ø$( ÐÌòòò òEvaluating€our€own€culture€while€studying€other€culturesó óóóÐ -°&* Ðà  àListening€to€people€who€have€just€returned€from€an€initial€visit€to€another€culture€is€aÐ d Ðrevealing€experience.€€Some€constantly€make€fun€of€the€other€culture€and€in€their€comparisonsÐ Pì Ðalways€point€out€the€superiority€of€their€own€way€of€doing€things.€€Others€are€perceptive€enoughÐ <Ø Ðnot€only€to€see€things€they€may€not€like€in€the€other€culture,€but€also€to€discern€problems€in€theirÐ ( Ä Ðown€culture.€€They€may,€in€fact,€return€laughing€at€themselves€as€much€as€or€more€than€they€do€atÐ  ° Ðthe€customs€of€those€they€have€just€visited.€€Certainly€those€with€the€latter€viewpoint€are€moreÐ  œ Ðlikely€to€learn€from€their€experience€and,€as€well,€to€be€accepted€by€those€within€other€cultures.Ð ì ˆ Ðà  àStudents€of€the€Old€Testament€need€to€maintain€this€same€attitude.€€Many€times€I€haveÐ Ø t Ðseen€people€laugh€at€and€criticize€Old€Testament€people,€customs,€and€practices.€€They€even€useÐ Ä ` Ðwords€like€ð ðprimitiveðð€and€ð ðbarbaric.ðð€€Before€we€denigrate€Israelite€marriage€we€should€askÐ °L  Ðwhich€culture€has€a€higher€divorce€rate.€€Before€we€condemn€their€wars€we€need€to€ask€howÐ œ8  Ðmany€wars€we€have€had€in€our€history.€€While€not€condoning€their€acts€of€cruelty,€we€need€to€askÐ ˆ$  Ðif€their€culture€or€ours€is€kinder€to€the€stranger,€visitor,€or€relative€in€trouble.Ð t  ÐÌòòò òRemembering€that€cultural€relativism€is€different€from€religious€relativismó óóóÐ Lè  Ðà  àWhat€I€have€suggested€above€is€a€form€of€cultural€relativism.€€The€implications€are€thatÐ 4Ð  Ðneither€Old€Testament€culture€nor€our€own€is€perfect.€€Both€have€their€strong€and€weak€pointsÐ  ¼ Ðand€some€elements€in€both€cultures€are€neither€right€nor€wrong,€just€different.€€These€conceptsÐ  ¨ Ðwill€cause€some€to€be€afraid€that€all€this€makes€some€of€the€theological€and€religious€ideas€of€theÐ ø” ÐOld€Testament€suspect.€€They€fear€that€I€will€go€on€to€say€that€much€of€the€Old€Testament€is€onlyÐ ä€ Ðthe€expression€of€Israelite€culture.€€My€aim€is,€in€fact,€just€the€opposite.€€Iððm€hoping€what€IððveÐ Ðl Ðsaid€will€make€it€easier€to€see€the€message€God€has€in€the€Old€Testament.€€An€understanding€ofÐ ¼X ÐIsraelite€culture€should€make€it€easier€to€see€the€way€God€seeks€to€change,€mold,€and€in€someÐ ¨D Ðways€affirm€their€culture.€€We€should€also€see€how€God€wants€to€do€the€same€with€our€culture.€Ð ”0 ÐOur€cultural€pride€can€often€blind€us€to€principles€God€has€placed€in€the€Bible€for€us€to€learn.€Ð € ÐBecoming€sensitive€to€cultural€issues€can€make€it€easier€for€us€to€discover€underlying€ideas€andÐ l Ðprinciples€in€the€Bible.€€These€principles€stand€in€judgment€on€all€peoples€and€cultures.Ð Xô ÐÌòòò òWORLD€VIEWó óóóÐ 0 Ì Ðà  àWith€such€a€view€of€culture€in€mind€we€can€now€move€on€to€look€at€the€world€view€ofÐ !´ ÐIsrael€and€compare€it€with€the€dominant€20th€century,€western€world€view.€€Before€doing€so,€IÐ "  Ðsuggest€a€brief€definition€of€ð ðworld€view.ðð€€World€view€is€the€underlying,€often€unconscious,€wayÐ ð"Œ Ða€certain€group€of€people€views€its€world,€including€deep€subsurface€principles€that€govern€aÐ Ü#x  Ðcultureððs€way€of€thinking€and€living.€€These€are€rarely€examined€or€expressed€openly.€€They€areÐ È$d! Ðunconsciously€taught€and€passed€on,€and€are€naturally€assumed€to€be€true€by€all€of€the€societyððsÐ ´%P" Ðmembers.€€I€propose€that€most€of€the€major€questions€people€have€about€the€Old€Testament€ariseÐ  &< # Ðout€of€the€differing€assumptions€they€make€about€world€view.Ð Œ'(!$ ÐÌòòò òÌÌComparing€Israelite€and€Western€world€viewsó óóóÐ 4+Ð$( Ðà  àòòThe€Western€world€view€is€highly€individualistic,€while€the€Israelite€world€viewÐ ,¸%) Ðemphasizes€corporate€personalityóó.€€Western€society€would€never€have€tolerated€what€Israel€did€toÐ -¤&* ÐÔ_ÔAchanÔ_Ô€in€Ô € ÔJosh€8:24,€25.€€To€punish€a€man€and€his€family€(along€with€his€animals,€too!)€with€theÐ ô-'+ Ðdeath€penalty€for€something€the€man€alone€did€would€not€be€appropriate.€€For€Israel,€not€onlyÐ d Ðpunishment€but€reward€as€well€was€shared€by€all€who€were€close€to€a€person.€€Western€cultureÐ Pì Ðpunishes€and€rewards€individuals.Ð <Ø Ðà  àWestern€culture€is€concerned€about€the€individual€and€his/her€freedom.€€People€expressÐ ( Ä Ðgreat€concern€if€God€seems€to€have€infringed€in€any€way€on€a€personððs€ability€to€choose€freely.€Ð  ° ÐIsrael,€on€the€other€hand,€is€concerned€about€the€welfare€of€the€group€and€worries€not€so€muchÐ  œ Ðabout€fairness€to€the€individual,€but€about€Godððs€ability€to€save,€help,€and€deliver€his€people.€Ð ì ˆ ÐThese€differing€viewpoints€drastically€affect€the€way€one€evaluates€Godððs€dealings€with€people.€Ð Ø t ÐWhat€appears€unfair€to€the€Western€mind€is€seen€by€Israelites€as€Godððs€work€to€save€the€group.Ð Ä ` Ðà  àòòIsraelites€see€God€as€near€and€vitally€involved€in€everyday€life,€while€Westerners€usuallyÐ °L  Ðview€God€as€operating€at€some€distance€by€his€universal€laws.óó€€In€the€Old€Testament,€peopleÐ œ8  Ðwalk€and€talk€with€God€on€a€fairly€regular€basis.€€God€brings€victory€or€defeat€in€war,€givesÐ ˆ$  Ðinstructions€to€people,€and€opens€and€closes€the€human€womb.€€God€is€directly€involved€inÐ t  Ðrewarding€and€punishing€people.€€Todayððs€Westerners,€even€though€they€profess€belief€in€aÐ `ü  Ðpersonal€God,€often€feel€uneasy€talking€this€way.€€God€can€theoretically€do€all€the€things€the€OldÐ Lè  ÐTestament€says€he€does,€but€he€apparently€does€them€only€rarely€now.€€He€chooses€to€operateÐ 8Ô  Ðmost€of€the€time€by€some€kind€of€natural€law.€€Direct€actions€of€God€in€miracle€orÐ $À Ðcommunication€through€voice,€prayer,€or€dream€constitute€for€most€a€theory,€not€a€commonÐ ¬ Ðexperience€in€daily€life.Ð ü˜ Ðà  àòòWesterners€and€Israelites€have€differing€ethical€hierarchiesóó.€€This€means€simply€that€theÐ è„ Ðrelative€importance€of€various€ethical€and€moral€behaviors€varies€greatly.€€A€case€in€point€is€theÐ Ôp Ðexperience€of€Lot€as€outlined€in€Gen€19.€€When€confronted€by€an€evil€mob€which€demands€toÐ À\ Ðmistreat€his€two€male€guests,€Lot€volunteers€to€give€his€two€virgin€daughters€to€the€crowd€to€beÐ ¬H Ðused€by€them€as€they€like.€€Lot€clearly€is€not€pleased€to€have€this€happen€to€his€daughters,€butÐ ˜4 Ðconsiders€it€the€lesser€of€two€evils.€€To€allow€two€male€guests€who€are€depending€on€him€forÐ „  Ðprotection€to€be€hurt€by€the€crowd€is€more€offensive€to€him€than€the€plight€of€his€two€daughters.€Ð p  ÐThe€Western€world€view€would€make€the€other€choice.€€While€mistreatment€of€the€guests€isÐ \ø Ðwrong,€given€this€particular€choice,€the€Westerner€would€likely€throw€the€two€guests€to€theÐ Hä Ðrabble.Ð 4 Ð Ðà  àòòIsraelites€are€more€authoritarian€than€Westerners€who€usually€place€greater€value€onÐ  !¼ Ðdemocracyóó.€€In€Israelite€society€kings€really€rule.€€They€govern€on€the€basis€of€their€decisionÐ  "¨ Ðalone.€€Tribal€and€clan€leaders€speak€and€people€obey.€€Parents€are€expected€to€control€theirÐ ø"” Ðchildren€who€even€as€adults€are€under€their€authority.€€While€Westerners€are€uncomfortable€withÐ ä#€  Ðthis,€Israel€knew€no€other€way€and€expected€things€to€work€in€this€manner.€€The€Western€love€forÐ Ð$l! Ðfreedom€and€democracy€is€based€more€on€cultural€ideals€than€most€realize.€€Biblical€studentsÐ ¼%X" Ðmust€exercise€care€lest€some€come€to€believe€that€this€brand€of€democracy€is€the€only€way€God„Ð ¨&D # Ðfearing€people€can€operate.Ð ”'0!$ Ðà  àòòWestern€culture€usually€views€life€analytically,€while€Israelites€see€it€holistically.óó€€WhileÐ €("% Ðthe€West€delights€in€breaking€things€down€into€small€pieces€for€the€purpose€of€study€and€analysis,Ð l)#& Ðthe€Israelite€likes€to€see€the€whole€picture€and€to€interrelate€the€various€parts.€€For€this€reason,€theÐ X*ô#' ÐWest€favors€talking€about€God€and€life€by€the€use€of€theology€and€philosophy.€€This€processÐ D+à$( Ðisolates€various€ideas€and€then€explains€the€individual€beliefs€and€concepts.€€Israelites€wouldÐ 0,Ì%) Ðrather€tell€a€story€or€write€a€poem.€€Typically,€Western€thinking€would€deal€with€Godððs€power€byÐ -¸&* ÐÔ_Ôanalyzing€its€meaning€and€extent€in€theological€or€philosophical€terms.€€Israel€would€utilize€aÐ d Ðstory,€illustrating€Godððs€power€in€the€life€of€a€person€or€nation.€€This€is€surely€why€most€of€theÐ Pì ÐOld€Testament€is€story€and€poem€rather€than€a€treatise€on€Bible€doctrines.€€The€Hebrew€languageÐ <Ø Ðitself€is€particularly€well€adapted€to€telling€stories€and€is€not€as€efficient€in€propoundingÐ ( Ä Ðphilosophy.€€A€question€about€God€in€the€West€will€usually€bring€an€explanation.€€A€questionÐ  ° Ðabout€God€to€an€Israelite€will€most€likely€elicit€a€story€and€a€call€to€encounter€the€God€of€theÐ  œ Ðstory.Ð ì ˆ Ðà  àòòIsraelite€culture€is€mainly€an€oral€culture,€while€modern€Western€culture€is€a€writtenÐ Ø t Ðcultureóó.€€Poetry,€song,€and€story€fit€better€an€oral€culture€than€a€written€one€because€they€soundÐ Ä ` Ðgood€to€the€ear€and€are€more€easily€memorized.€€Repetition€is€helpful€to€an€oral€culture,€while€aÐ °L  Ðwritten€one€may€not€need€it€so€much.€€Oral€cultures€develop€careful€listening€skills€and€excellentÐ œ8  Ðmemories.€€Written€cultures€are€more€individualistic€and€analysis„oriented.€€The€two€culturesÐ ˆ$  Ðthus€experience€the€word€of€God€differently.€€To€know€the€Bible€mainly€as€an€oral€word€of€God,Ð t  Ðexperienced€most€often€in€community€with€other€people€and€often€committed€to€memory,€is€aÐ `ü  Ðvastly€different€experience€than€to€know€the€Bible€as€a€written€book€to€be€studied,€read,€andÐ Lè  Ðanalyzedð"ðusually€in€private.Ð 8Ô  Ðà  àòòIsraelites€emphasized€ritual,€while€Westerners€in€general€have€little€use€for€religiousÐ $À Ðceremonyóó.€€From€the€ceremonies€connected€with€the€wilderness€tabernacle€to€the€elaborate€liturgyÐ ¬ Ðof€Solomonððs€temple,€the€entire€Old€Testament€testifies€to€the€Israelite€love€of€ritual.€€EveryÐ ü˜ ÐHebrew€was€glad€when€someone€said,€ð ðLet€us€go€to€the€house€of€the€Lordðð€€(Ô € ÔPs€122:1).Ð è„ Ðà  àOn€the€contrary,€the€modern€American€is€more€liable€to€yawn€when€someone€suggestsÐ Ôp Ðð ðgoing€to€the€house€of€the€Lordððð"ðespecially€if€it€has€to€do€with€ceremony€or€ritual.€€WesternersÐ À\ Ðare€more€likely€to€speak€of€dead€or€empty€ritual€than€of€living,€meaningful€ceremony.€€For€theÐ ¬H ÐHebrew,€ritual€was€far€from€dead,€but€was€a€vibrant,€powerful€reenactment€of€Godððs€deeds€onÐ ˜4 Ðbehalf€of€his€people.€€Ritual€was€a€means€of€teaching€people€about€God€and€served€as€a€renewingÐ „  Ðagent€in€religious€life.€€Ritual€also€was€the€means€of€giving€movement€and€structure€to€time€andÐ p  Ðthe€yearly€cycle.€€Because€Westerners€no€longer€feel€this€way€about€ritual,€the€large€sections€ofÐ \ø Ðthe€Old€Testament€which€talk€of€ritual€and€outline€its€content€may€fail€to€move€and€inspire.Ð Hä Ðà  àòò€While€the€dominant€cultural€trend€in€the€modern€Western€world€is€left€brain,€the€trend€inÐ 4 Ð Ðancient€Israel€was€right€brainóó.€€For€those€not€familiar€with€this€terminology€some€explanation€isÐ  !¼ Ðin€order.€€While€people€have€both€€right€and€left€hemispheres€to€their€brains,€these€twoÐ  "¨ Ðhemispheres,€split„brain€theory€suggests,€seem€to€have€differing€yet€complementary€functions.€Ð ø"” ÐIndividuals€and€cultures€tend€to€emphasize€one€or€the€other€of€these€two€sides.€€The€leftÐ ä#€  Ðhemisphere€deals€mainly€with€thinking€which€is€analytical,€logical,€abstract,€and€sequential€andÐ Ð$l! Ðwhich€reasons€from€cause€to€effect.€Those€whose€left€brain€predominates€are€the€logicians,Ð ¼%X" Ðcritics,€and€analysts€who€are€good€at€math,€grammar,€philosophy,€and€engineering.Ð ¨&D # Ðà  àRight„brain€thinking,€on€the€other€hand,€is€synthetic,€imaginative,€holistic,€andÐ ”'0!$ Ðmetaphorical.€€People€with€a€right€brain€emphasis€are€artists,€inventors,€poets,€and€ð ðpeopleÐ €("% Ðpersonsðð€who€are€good€at€art,€music,€story€writing€and€telling.Ð l)#& Ðà  àWhile€it€is€obvious€that€every€society€produces€people€with€both€emphases,€differentÐ X*ô#' Ðcultures€tend€to€lean€one€way€or€the€other.€€Dominant€cultural€values€tend€to€place€more€stress€onÐ D+à$( Ðone€type€of€thinking€over€the€other.€€What€I€am€suggesting€is€that€the€Old€Testament€is€primarilyÐ 0,Ì%) Ða€right„brain€book,€produced€by€a€culture€that€highly€valued€that€kind€of€thinking.€€Ô_ÔModernÐ -¸&* ÐWesterners,€who€are€primarily€left„brain,€often€misunderstand€and€misinterpret€simply€becauseÐ d Ðthey€think€differently.€€Stories€are€not€philosophy€and€poems€are€not€math€problems,€and€theÐ Pì Ðradical€difference€between€these€literary€forms€and€the€thinking€that€lies€behind€them€must€beÐ <Ø Ðrecognized.Ð ( Ä Ðà  àòòWestern€and€Israelite€concepts€of€time€and€its€use€are€differentóó.€€Most€modern,€middle„Ð  ° Ðclass€Westerners€are€future„oriented.€€They€focus€on€relatively€distant€goals€such€as€a€collegeÐ  œ Ðdegree,€money€for€their€childrenððs€education,€and€their€own€retirement.€€Ancient€Israelite€societyÐ ì ˆ Ðwas€present„oriented.€€Present„orientation€places€less€stress€on€schedules€and€timetables.€€Pay€forÐ Ø t Ða€dayððs€work€was€expected€at€the€end€of€that€day€€(Ô € ÔLev€19:13,€Ô € ÔDeut€24:14,€15).€€MeaningfulÐ Ä ` Ðfeedback€came€from€immediate€social€interaction€that€concerned€present€survival€and€support.€Ð °L  ÐBecause€the€present€is€crucial,€its€significance€is€extended€for€a€present„oriented€person,€while€toÐ œ8  Ða€future„oriented€person€the€present€is€of€rather€short€duration.€€People€who€stress€present€timeÐ ˆ$  Ðcan€often€easily€do€several€things€at€once,€and€the€completion€of€transactions€with€people€is€moreÐ t  Ðimportant.€€People€who€emphasize€future€time€tend€to€quantify€time€and€accomplishments.€Ð `ü  ÐPresent„time€cultures€do€today€those€things€that€can€only€be€done€today.€€These€differing€attitudesÐ Lè  Ðtoward€time€affect€all€areas€of€life.Ð 8Ô  ÐÌòòò òCONCLUSIONó óóóÐ ¬ Ðà  àIn€conclusion,€we€should€remember€that€in€all€the€aspects€of€world€view€mentionedÐ ø” Ðabove,€both€viewpoints€can€be€acceptable.€€None€of€the€points€noted€affects€essential€biblicalÐ ä€ Ðtruth.€€People€can€be€dedicated€to€God€and€his€service€and€either€love€or€dislike€ritual,€be€present„Ð Ðl Ðor€future„oriented,€be€holistic€or€analytical€in€thinking.€€Being€aware€of€this€can€help€usÐ ¼X Ðunderstand€and€appreciate€people€who€are€different€from€ourselves.€€It€also€makes€it€easier€toÐ ¨D Ðdifferentiate€between€Godððs€core€truths€and€simple€aspects€of€human€culture€not€directly€relatedÐ ”0 Ðto€divine€revelation.€€While€numerous€other€examples€could€be€given,€the€differences€discussedÐ € Ðabove€can€help€us€realize€our€need€to€be€sensitive,€understanding€ð ðmissionariesðð€as€we€study€theÐ l Ðforeign€Old€Testament€culture.Ð Xô ÐÌòòò òFURTHER€READINGó óóóÐ 0 Ì ÐÔ_ÔDybdahlÔ_Ô,€Jon€L.Ð !´ Ðà  à1988à0 ` àð ðHow€Culture€Conditions€Our€View€of€Scripture.ðð€€òòMinistryóó,€Jan.,€pp€7„9.Ð" ` (#` (# ÐKraft,€CharlesÐ ð"Œ Ðà  à1979à0 ` àòòChristianity€in€Cultureóó.€€Ô_ÔMaryknollÔ_Ô,€NY:Ô% € Ô€Ô_ÔOrbisÔ_Ô.ÐÜ#x ` (#` (# ÐÔ_ÔRogersonÔ_Ô,€John€W.Ð È$d! Ðà  à1979à0 ` àòòAnthropology€and€the€Old€Testamentóó.€€Atlanta:€John€Knox.д%P"` (#` (# ÐWilson,€Robert€R.Ð  &< # Ðà  à1985à0 ` àð ðSociology€of€the€Old€Testament.ðð€€òòHarperððs€Bible€Dictionaryóó.€€New€York:Ð Œ'(!$ ÐHarper€&€Row,€pp€968„973.Ðx("%` (#` (# ÐÔ#†XñÐXXXÏÑn#Ô