ÿWPCž ”Š 3kàÔ¡—+’DE-jÄCBÜIDG¼ ‘w©ãÇ{k3I7,W̬Ö)Y¥Ë„— ÷2ôùEý—+Èugle—p—ùX|¥F8RU ’ ñ§ÙAÉThÀb$Õ~UŠÅíí`ÎÍ,˾ÝZEº›àS°Ì2ŠqÍ;‚;ž:€ûý7tÏNËR<ƒ ?påDU¤­Ú«¿7h‚<níB³>×bнLìg9!çà}Ì®^1¬”Ú]NðU8§…Ž/µÊ@ù¹’B¾#‚¡É(ÊU~B%Œ!vÄŠ}ZøÅ¹XÔƒ ;>~˦؊æ ä›l’Öaà§2/-h­0Ú:Ã^ƒº²›ÍÝ籪|·šiM3a;pç΄Ž–>Ø‚Óp–¯AØk¤ÖW"#û¾ÿÇKÞÐ+€jÕWëH˜0¡§õöæen9R7peGoC3®}«khYÒ€z ”6…±,Ó¡žc‡ÃÊAJ»îÕ!Þ¤1Õ]9ö:¨?—øwÊcy7'/à`…¿Øóšë09¾‘ ñ¹¢%ùT£„­ŠY“63õá¢Ìw‚*­J³¢îþÅtTƒVRËç¯ iJй¤i:äìFµo»Uæ1E$}“@,*9X–é#!üUN %k 0Œqw@ý4=Q` mbNy^ {UB‡U<É 1‡ 1uŒ 0c:d˜HP OfficeJet R80xi0X,,,,0X0xÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(d—Ñ$¡¡Ô€Xc`X»¼ÔÑ8€c`XXdìXXdì8ÑÑ  Ñ ÊËQÌ[Í[Î[Ï[Ð[Ñ[Ò[Ó[[n.esktop3|xÓÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÊ{/ ô\  `*Times New RomanTTô\  `$Times NewRoman(5hCEKQW]cioAutoList11.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.##37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)(;ó¿$´´Ô25hÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à 0Ñ  ÑÑ  ÑÑ * ÑÑ 8 ÑÝ ƒ—Ñ!ÝÔ€X3FXXXÔÑ8€3FXXdìdÈ8ÑÑ  ÑÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑe°Ñò òÓ*°,X°†wÀ”X°œX*ÓÔ‡¼XV»XX3FÔÑ€oiÑÓ  ÓThe€extended„flood:€a€biblical€theory€of€earth€historyÐ e ÐÔ#†X3FX»¼XVÊ#Ôó óÌLeonard€Brandò òÔ‡¼XV»XX3FÔÐ e ÐÔ#†X3FX»¼XVˆ#Ôó óProfessor€of€Biology€and€PaleontologyÐ Qì ÐÔ_ÔLomaÔ_Ô€Linda€UniversityÌÔ‡¼XV»XX3FÔò òÌó óÔ#†X3FX»¼XVR#ÔÌÓúÓÌò òIntroductionó óÐ  ° Ðà ' àAfter€the€rise€of€Darwinism€in€the€mid€19òòthóó€century,€most€Christian€groups€did€not€know€howÐ  œ  Ðto€respond,€and€they€generally€accepted€various€concepts€of€life€developing€over€long€ages€ofÏtime.€€Around€the€turn€of€the€century€this€began€to€change€(Numbers€1992,€1999),€with€GeorgeÏÔ_ÔMcCreadyÔ_Ô€Price€developing€a€flood€theory€of€geology.€€In€his€theory€the€flood€explained€allÏgeological€phenomena.€€He€rejected€glaciation€and€the€presumed€stratigraphic€order€of€the€fossils.€ÏPrice€was€convinced€that€this€evolutionary€sequence€of€fossils€was€an€unsubstantiated€device€ofÏthe€evolutionists€to€support€their€theory.€€Ô_ÔWhitcombÔ_Ô€and€Morrisððs€book€The€Genesis€Flood€(1961)Ïpresented€Priceððs€flood€theory€in€a€way€that€caught€the€attention€of€a€significant€portion€of€theÏChristian€world€and€brought€flood€geology€into€prominence€(Numbers€1992,€1999).Ìà ' àHarold€Clark€followed€closely€in€Priceððs€footsteps€for€a€time,€but€Clark€spent€time€in€fieldÏstudy€and€recognized€weaknesses€in€Priceððs€concepts.€€Clark€decided€there€was€indeed€a€time€ofÏmore€intense€glaciation€in€the€Pleistocene,€and€the€fossils€really€do€occur€in€a€predictable€sequenceÏin€the€fossil€record.€€In€order€to€explain€how€this€sequence€could€be€produced€by€a€global€flood€heÏproposed€his€ecological€zonation€theory.€€According€to€this€theory,€all€basic€types€of€createdÏanimals€and€plants€were€alive€at€the€beginning€of€the€flood,€and€they€were€killed€and€buried€in€aÏsequence€determined€by€the€ecological€zone€in€which€they€lived.€€As€the€flood€waters€rose,€lowÏelevation€ecological€zones€were€destroyed€first,€and€successive€higher€elevation€zones€wereÏaffected€in€turn.€€This€has€become€the€standard€explanation€for€many€believers€in€a€literal€flood.Ìà ' àAs€we€look€more€closely€at€the€details€of€the€geological€record€it€becomes€more€difficult€toÏexplain€the€evidence€with€Clarkððs€theory.€€Not€only€the€sequence€of€fossils,€but€many€geologicalÏfeatures€also€are€a€challenge€to€this€theory.€€What€approach€should€we€take€as€we€search€forÏanswers?Ìà ' àI€choose€to€begin€the€search€by€summarizing€the€concepts€that€we€can€derive€from€Scripture,Ïchoose€to€accept€the€events€in€Genesis€as€literal€events€(€I€will€not€defend€that€view€now,€but€willÏshow€how€it€can€be€applied).€€The€following€is€my€list€of€biblical€anchor€points:ÌÌ1.€€A€literal€creation€week€of€seven€consecutive,€24€hour€days.Ìà0 ' àà ° à2.€€At€the€end€of€creation€week€the€earth€contained€a€variety€of€plants€and€animals,€includingÏinvertebrates,€fish,€reptiles,€mammals,€birds,€and€trees,€including€some€that€are€considered€toÏbe€the€more€ð ðhighly€evolvedðð€types€such€as€humans€and€fruit€trees€(angiosperms).à Ð à€€Ð½'X#&'(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à3.€€The€creation€week€occurred€only€a€few€thousand€years€ago.€€There€are€uncertainties€about€theÏcompleteness€of€genealogical€lists€and€differences€between€ancient€biblical€manuscripts,€butÏalthough€we€donððt€know€the€exact€time€span,€I€conclude€that€Scripture€clearly€portrays€aÏshort€history€of€life€on€this€earth.€Ð '(#'(# Ð4.€€Sometime€since€the€creation€there€was€a€catastrophic€flood€of€global€proportions.ÌÐ E-à(,  Ðà ' àPrice,€Clark,€and€many€other€conservative€creationists€have€also€made€one€other,€oftenÏunstated,€assumption€„€the€geological€processes€of€erosion,€sedimentation,€mountain€building,Ïchanges€in€sea€level,€etc.€did€not€begin€in€any€substantial€way€until€the€beginning€of€the€globalÏflood€of€Genesis€6„8.€€Ìà ' àThis€view€assumes€that€the€one„year€flood€produced€all€or€a€large€part€of€the€PhanerozoicÏrock€record.€€There€are€variations€on€this€theme;€e.g.€it€is€often€suggested€that€the€Paleozoic€andÏMesozoic€formed€in€the€flood€and€the€Cenozoic€formed€Ô_ÔpostfloodÔ_Ô,€but€some€would€includeÏeverything€from€Cambrian€through€Pleistocene€in€the€flood.€€Others€are€willing€to€have€someÏsediments€accumulating€before€the€flood,€in€the€oceans,€but€these€views€generally€agree€that€theÏearth€was€geologically€stable€and€basically€static€before€the€flood.Ìà ' àPerhaps€we€need€to€ask€ourselves€where€we€got€that€idea?€€It€cannot€be€found€in€my€Bible.€ÏPhilosophically€it€makes€a€tidy€package€to€have€the€earth€remaining€geologically€stable€and€perfectÏuntil€it€was€disrupted€at€the€flood,€largely€because€we€are€used€to€thinking€that€way.€€It€would€alsoÏbe€consistent€with€the€confidence€of€Noahððs€contemporaries€that€a€flood€was€impossible.€€But€isÏthat€tidy€package€true?€€We€know€that€the€biological€world€began€to€change€soon€after€sin€enteredÏthe€picture.€€How€do€we€know€that€the€geological€world€did€not€also€begin€to€change€at€that€time?€ÏThe€Bible€does€not€tell€us€that€it€didnððt€„€we€have€gotten€that€idea€from€somewhere€else.€€Could€itÏbe€that€serious€geological€changes€began€soon€after€Adam€and€Eveððs€sin,€and€continued€until,Ïduring,€and€after€the€flood€described€in€Genesis?€€Ìà ' àOf€course€the€Bible€does€not€tell€us€that€there€òòwereóó€significant€geological€changes€before€theÐ „ Ðflood,€but€then€it€also€doesnððt€tell€us€about€glaciation,€volcanism,€or€the€dinosaurs,€and€it€doesnððtÏmention€human€history€in€most€of€Asia€or€Africa.€€The€Bible€only€covers€certain€aspects€of€historyÏthat€reveal€Godððs€relationship€to€His€people,€and€leaves€us€to€figure€out€the€rest€for€ourselves.€Ìà ' àWhen€other€persons€have€suggested€that€larger€parts€of€the€geological€record€were€notÏformed€during€the€flood,€I€have€often€tended€to€reject€this,€because€so€often€the€two€options€onÏ(or€under)€the€table€were€a€literal€flood€versus€hundreds€of€millions€of€years€of€evolution€throughÏgeological€history.€€Those€rejecting€the€flood€as€the€explanation€for€most€or€all€of€geologicalÏhistory€sometimes€tended€to€move€down€the€ð ðslippery€slopeðð€to€long€ages€of€geological,Ïevolutionary€€time.€€However,€this€all€or€nothing€approach€is€not€necessary.€€The€antidote€to€theÏslippery€slope€is€the€list€of€biblical€anchor€points.€€There€are€seldom€only€two€options€available,Ïand€if€we€make€use€of€the€anchor€points€to€guide€us,€perhaps€there€is€another€viable€optionÏwaiting€to€be€discovered.€€It€seems€to€me€that€we€should€at€least€consider€that€possibility.Ìà ' àIn€the€1800's€Ô_ÔLyellÔ_Ô€(1892)€constricted€geology€to€a€very€gradualistic€theory,€which€would€notÏallow€any€interpretations€that€included€catastrophic€processes.€€It€is€now€recognized€that€Ô_ÔLyellÔ_ÔððsÏgradualism€was€bad€for€geology,€because€it€eliminated€many€valid€hypotheses€from€considerationÏ(Gould€1984).€€Is€it€possible€that€Price€unwittingly€initiated€the€opposite,€but€equally€damagingÏproblem€among€believers€in€the€biblical€flood,€by€only€considering€the€year€of€the€flood€as€theÏsource€of€most€or€all€fossil„bearing€rocks?€€Ìà ' àWe€should€not€fall€into€the€common€human€problem€of€going€to€an€opposite€extreme€andÏòòassumeóó€that€a€lot€of€geological€action€happened€before€the€flood.€€But€I€also€think€we€should€notÐ  *ô#' Ðassume€anything€for€which€we€do€not€have€good€evidence€or€revealed€insights.€€Perhaps€it€is€timeÏto€open€the€discussion€to€a€range€of€possibilities€that€are€consistent€with€the€biblical€anchor€pointsÏthat€we€have,€and€not€make€any€arbitrary€restrictions€beyond€those.€€Others€have€also€begun€toÏthink€in€this€direction€as€well€(Ô_ÔGentetÔ_Ô€2000).€€€€Ð ½-¤'+ Їò òSuggestions€for€constructing€an€alternate€theory€„€the€Extended„Flood€Theory€ó ó€Ð  Ðà ' àThe€development€of€an€alternate,€Bible„based,€theory€of€geological€history€should€not€beÏdone€while€sitting€in€an€armchair,€or€even€in€a€lab€surrounded€by€piles€of€good€geology€books.€€ItÏwill€need€to€be€done€while€examining€a€wide€range€of€field€sites€and€gathering€careful€data.€€It€willÏneed€to€involve€original€research€specifically€designed€to€test€concepts€of€the€theory€and€findÏcriteria€for€accepting€or€rejecting€various€ideas.Ìà ' àAs€a€starting€point,€the€following€ideas€suggest€what€a€theory€might€involve,€that€includesÏsignificant€geological€activity€between€creation€and€the€flood,€and€after€the€flood.€€These€ideas€canÏbe€helpful€as€long€as€we€do€not€become€too€attached€to€them.€€This€is€not€a€theory€to€be€defended,Ïbut€a€suggestion€of€an€approach€to€the€study€of€geological€history€that€could€lead€in€time€to€anÏalternate€theory,€that€can€be€fruitfully€compared€with€more€traditional€geological€theories.€ÏÔ_ÔChamberlinÔ_Ôððs€concept€of€multiple€working€hypotheses€(Ô_ÔChamberlinÔ_Ô€1965)€is€very€useful,€especiallyÏin€the€initial€phases€of€evaluating€which€direction€to€go€in€our€theorizing,€and€the€following€is€oneÏof€the€possibilities.€ò òó óÐ   ÐÌà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Perhaps€processes€forming€the€Phanerozoic€record€began€soon€after€sin,€and€continued€to€theÏpresent€day.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à2.€€A€significant€amount€of€the€geological€record€formed€during€the€hundreds€of€years€beforeÏNoahððs€trip,€probably€in€the€ocean€basins€and€lowland€areas€not€inhabited€by€humans.€€This€isÏsupported€by€the€fact€that€some€of€our€modern€continents€are€largely€covered€by€PaleozoicÏmarine€sediments,€indicating€they€were€lowland€basins€before€the€flood€(Brand€1997,€p.€274„¼276).€€These€basins€were€largely€occupied€by€shallow€oceans€and€Ô_ÔnearshoreÔ_Ô€environments,Ïand€it€is€not€clear€where€the€Ô_ÔprefloodÔ_Ô€continents€were.€€This€may€seem€extreme,€but€if€ourÏpresent€continents€were€originally€covered€by€ocean,€how€could€the€people€and€otherÏterrestrial€plants€and€animals€have€been€living€there?€€They€had€to€be€somewhere€else.€€TheÏbasaltic€rocks€forming€modern€ocean€basins€are€no€older€than€about€Jurassic,€so€we€are€notÏsure€what€occupied€that€area€before€Jurassic€time.€€Perhaps€there€were€some€type€ofÏcontinents€in€part€of€that€area.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ž àThe€time€available€for€this€would€be€up€to€about€1500€years€if€the€time€span€sinceÏcreation€was€roughly€6,000€years.€€If€that€time€was€closer€to€10,000€years,€the€time€forÏð ðÔ_ÔprefloodÔ_Ôðð€geological€processes€could€be€up€to€5,000€years.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à3.€€Since€the€scientists€of€Noahððs€time€argued€that€a€great€flood€could€not€happen,€it€seems€thatÏthe€inhabited€parts€of€the€earth€were€not€affected€much€until€the€ark€was€launched€(or€theÏeffects€were€such€that€the€people€considered€them€to€be€normal€processes).€€Some€dramaticÏchange€took€place€at€that€time,€destroying€at€least€the€inhabited€parts€of€the€earth.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à4.€€Perhaps€that€dramatic€change€was€the€breakup€of€part€of€the€earthððs€crust,€with€rapidÏÔ_ÔsubductionÔ_Ô€of€old€continental€areas€(ala€Ô_ÔBaumgardnerÔ_Ô?€[Clausen€1998]),€or€loss€ofÏcontinental€area€by€some€other€process.€€Perhaps€this€was€the€flood€described€in€Genesis.€ÏAfter€that€crisis,€the€earth€was€again€stable€enough€to€support€life,€but€much€catastrophicÏaction€continued€as€crustal€plates€moved€to€their€current€positions€and€the€crust€graduallyÏreached€a€new€equilibrium.€€Possibly€this€destruction€of€the€continental€areas€inhabited€byÏhumans€was€rather€complete,€and€we€have€not€yet€found,€or€havenððt€recognized,€anyÏevidence€for€this€event.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ž àIs€it€possible€that€continents€could€be€Ô_ÔsubductedÔ_Ô€into€the€mantle?€€It€seems€that€thisÐ Á-¨'+ ÐÑoiÑâ âÑÑÑ  ÑÑ*°ÑÑ8eÑâ âÑ  Ñwould€require€that€Ô_ÔprefloodÔ_Ô€continents€were€different€in€composition€from€modernÏcontinents.€€Continents€now€have€a€foundation€of€granitic€rock,€which€is€too€light€to€sinkÏdown€into€the€denser€basaltic€material€under€them.€€One€possibility€is€that€at€least€some€of€theÏoriginal€continents€were€of€basaltic€material,€but€with€abundant€pore€spaces€for€waterÏmovement,€resulting€in€a€net€specific€gravity€lower€than€solid€basaltic€rock.€€A€continent€ofÏthis€composition€would€be€light€enough€to€stay€above€the€ocean€water€level,€but€if€the€waterÏsystem€collapsed€so€that€it€became€solid€basalt,€it€could€then€be€Ô_ÔsubductedÔ_Ô€into€the€mantle.€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ž àAnother€option€to€consider€is€that€the€original€parts€of€continents€occupied€by€uplandÏterrestrial€ecosystems,€including€humans,€were€located€in€parts€of€our€continents€that€are€nowÏcalled€shields.€€These€are€areas€that€have€no€rocks€younger€than€Precambrian.€€NortheastÏCanada€and€a€large€part€of€Greenland€compose€one€of€these€shields.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à5.€€The€period€of€readjustment€after€the€flood€produced€the€more€recent€part€of€the€geologicalÏrecord,€over€a€time€period€of€hundreds€to€perhaps€a€few€thousand€years.€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à6.€€Portions€of€the€fossil€record,€before€and€since€the€flood,€may€have€accumulated€slowly€enoughÏfor€evolution€within€lower€taxonomic€levels€to€occur,€and€to€be€recorded€in€the€fossil€record.€ÏPossible€examples€of€this€could€be€the€series€of€species€of€trilobites€in€successive€units€ofÏCambrian€rocks,€or€ammonite€species€in€successive€ammonite€zones€in€Cretaceous€sediments.€ÏThis€suggests€that€microevolution€and€speciation€can€occur€within€created€groups€òòmuchóóÐ ˜¬ Ðfaster€that€most€scientists€believe€possible,€especially€when€environments€are€changing€rapidlyÏ(genetic€evidence€may€support€that€idea)€(Brand€1997,€ch.€12).€€One€difficulty€with€this€ideaÏis€that€so€often€species€appear€in€the€fossil€record€with€no€intermediates€linking€them€toÏancestral€species.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à7.€€The€sequence€in€the€fossil€record€resulted€from€a€combination€of€(a)€changes€in€the€ecologicalÏzones€affected€at€various€times€(a€sort€of€stretched€out€version€of€ecological€Ô_ÔzonationÔ_Ô.€€ThisÏmay€be€more€realistic€than€Clarkððs€version,€since€the€less€catastrophic€processes€in€theÏextended„flood€theory€would€be€less€likely€to€mix€organisms€from€very€different€habitats),€(b)Ïactual€microevolution€and€speciation€within€created€groups€as€organisms€adapted€to€changesÏin€water€chemistry,€temperature,€plant€associations,€etc.,€(c)€migration€of€organisms€andÏperhaps€competitive€replacement€of€some€groups,€and€(d)€die„offs€occurring€as€changingÏecological€conditions€(involving€episodes€of€volcanism,€continental€movements,€and€otherÏevents)€reached€successive€crisis€points€for€different€groups€of€organisms.€€Ð '(#'(# ÐÌò òComparison€of€three€theories€€ó óÐ l#€  Ðà ' àFigure€1€is€a€comparison€of€three€theories,€a€traditional€flood€theory€with€the€Paleozoic€andÏMesozoic€formed€during€the€flood,€an€initial€version€of€the€extended„flood€theory,€and€theÏconventional€long€ages€theory.€€Each€has€advantages€and€disadvantages€in€its€consistency€with€theÏscientific€and€biblical€data€(Table€1).Ìà ' àThese€are€testable€theories.€€Testing€them€will€not€happen€quickly,€as€it€will€require€someÏeffort€to€develop€better€ideas€of€just€what€processes€would€be€involved€in€an€extended„floodÏtheory.€€But€some€basic€aspects€of€the€theories€can€be€tested€even€now,€with€good€field€work.€ÏOne€definite€advantage€of€considering€new€options,€e.g.€an€extended€flood€theory,€for€comparisonÏwith€the€traditional€flood€theory€is€that€we€are€not€boxed€in€by€unnecessary€constraints.€€If€weÏmake€the€extra„biblical€assumption€that€all€fossil„bearing€geological€deposits€began€at€the€flood,Ïthen€there€are€many€situations€where€we€have€no€choice€but€to€interpret€entire€rock€formations€asÏdeposited€in€hours,€days,€or€a€few€weeks€at€most,€no€matter€what€the€evidence.€€However,€if€weÏare€comparing€two€or€more€theories,€like€the€traditional€flood€theory€and€the€extended€floodÐ h/|)- Ðtheory,€we€can€open„mindedly€evaluate€(while€still€working€within€a€conservative€biblicalÏframework)€whether€each€rock€formation€was€deposited€within€hours„weeks,€or€whether€theyÏeach€took€many€years€(years€to€100's€of€years)€to€form.Ìà ' àOf€course€if€we€remain€within€a€time€frame€of€thousands,€rather€than€millions,€of€years,€weÏwill€still€need€to€predict€that€there€are€entirely€new€interpretations€needed€for€some€geologicalÏprocesses.€€That€is€true€even€for€those€who€prefer€a€longer€time€frame,€like€a€few€hundredÏthousand€years,€and€the€data€available€to€us€from€scientific€study€may€not€be€able€to€establishÏwhether€it€was€<10,000€years€or€>100,000€years€anyway€(there€will€always€be€personal€faithÏconvictions€involved),€so€I€hope€that€all€of€us€who€care€about€the€Genesis€account€can€workÏtogether€on€this,€no€matter€just€what€time€frame€we€believe€is€best.€€The€real€choice€that€can€beÏevaluated€with€the€methods€of€science€is€between€creation€followed€by€a€short€geological€historyÏ(not€being€too€specific€about€the€time),€vs.€evolution€of€life€over€many€millions€of€years.ÌÌò òRates€of€geological€and€biological€processesó óÐ èü  Ðà ' àIt€appears€that€the€extended„flood€theory€may€have€much€better€prospects€for€explainingÏgeological€and€paleontological€data€than€a€traditional€flood€theory€that€requires€much€of€theÏrecord€to€be€formed€in€one€year.€€Several€thousand€years€is€three€orders€of€magnitude€more€thanÏone€year,€and€there€is€a€big€difference€in€what€can€occur€during€those€two€different€time€periods.€ÏThe€following€discussion€lists€several€of€the€important€types€of€evidence€pertinent€to€questions€ofÏtime,€with€some€preliminary€analysis€(other€lines€of€evidence€are€also€important,€but€this€is€aÏbeginning).€€€ÌÌò òÓ  Óó óòòSedimentation€ratesóóÐ 4H ÐÓKIÓà ' àAs€Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ô€(1981)€pointed€out,€there€doesnððt€seem€to€be€nearly€as€much€sediment€in€theÏgeological€column€as€is€expected€from€modern€sedimentation€rates.€The€extended„flood€theoryÏproposed€here€gives€an€explanation€for€that€observation.€€Ancient€rates€of€sedimentation€inÏÔ_ÔSadlerÔ_Ôððs€graph€were€determined€by€measuring€thickness€of€sediment€between€radiometricallyÏdated€units€(far€right€side€of€graph€in€Fig.€2).€€The€extended„flood€theory€proposes€thatÏradiometric€processes€do€not€give€a€true€measure€of€time,€at€least€for€the€Phanerozoic,€and€theÏaverage€rates€of€geological€processes€in€the€past€were€much€faster€than€shown€in€the€graph€in€Fig.Ï2.€€Ìà ' àIf€we€just€measure€the€thickness€of€sediment€present€in€the€geological€column€(averageÏPhanerozoic€sediment€thickness€is€1,500„2,000€m),€and€compare€that€with€Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ôððs€graph€in€Fig.Ï2,€it€appears€that€in€the€extended„flood€theory€the€existing€Phanerozoic€sediments€could€beÏdeposited€by€average€sedimentation€rates€that€are€only€0„1€order€of€magnitude€higher€than€modernÏsedimentation€processes€averaged€over€a€time€period€of€one€year€(Fig.€2;€Table€2).€€This€shouldÏprobably€be€increased€to€0„2€orders€of€magnitude€faster€than€modern€rates,€because€in€someÏplaces€the€sediment€is€much€thicker€than€the€average€of€1,500„2,000€m.€€Ìà ' àThis€is€possibly€realistic,€and€probably€rather€conservative,€if€my€impression€is€correct€that€atÏleast€some€(and€maybe€a€lot)€of€the€Phanerozoic€rocks€were€deposited€by€more€rapid€processesÏthan€we€observe€today.€€This€is,€however,€a€very€preliminary€way€of€looking€at€sedimentationÏrates.€€We€donððt€really€know€what€was€happening€without€a€comprehensive€analysis€of€the€effectsÏover€time€of€sediment€supply,€basin€subsidence,€and€whether€basins€are€draining€(closed€vs.€openÏbasins)€(Carroll€and€Ô_ÔBohacsÔ_Ô€1999)€in€different€areas.€€These€are€also€only€òòaverageóó€rates,€and€donððtÐ -¤'+ Ðmean€that€processes€were€occurring€at€steady€rates.€€There€could€have€been€episodes€of€rapidÏsedimentation€and€periods€of€little€activity.€€There€would€likely€have€been€times€with€veryÐ h/|)- Ðcatastrophic€processes,€but€overall,€average€sediment€accumulation€rates€of€a€few€feet€per€yearÏcan€hardly€even€be€considered€catastrophic.€€Ìà ' à€It€seems€to€me,€from€the€literature€and€from€my€own€study,€that€some€significant€types€ofÏevidence€in€the€rocks€point€to€rates€of€geological€processes€that€are€much€too€fast€forÏconventional€theory€based€on€the€radiometric€time€scale.€€An€extended„flood€theory€may€comeÏclosest€to€explaining€this,€since€the€time€frame€of€this€theory€can€account€for€the€existingÏsediments€with€geological€processes€that€are€not€much€faster€than€is€observed€today,€even€in€ourÏrelatively€stable€earth.à  àÐ ` t Ðà ' àThe€following€are€some€examples€of€data€that€donððt€fit€conventional€theory€well,€and€may€beÏbetter€explained€by€a€theory€that€is€closer€to€what€I€am€suggesting:Ìà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Eocene€Bridger€Formation,€SW€Wyoming€„€radiometric€dating€requires€about€200,000€yearÏcycles€between€limestones,€while€taphonomy€of€the€abundant€fossil€turtles,€Ô_ÔstromatolitesÔ_Ô,Ïsedimentological€data,€etc.€can,€I€believe,€be€better€explained€in€perhaps€20„100€year€cyclesÏ(3„4€orders€of€magnitude€difference).Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à2.€€Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ô€(1981)€data€on€rates€of€sedimentation€indicate€that€ancient€rates€based€on€theÏradiometric€time€scale€are€4„8€orders€of€magnitude€slower€than€modern€rates€measured€overÏone€year€(Fig.€2).Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à3.€€Brett€and€Bairdððs€(1986)€theory€(ad„hoc€hypothesis)€for€explaining€the€missing€sediment€isÏshown€in€Fig.€3€(Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ô€1993€proposes€a€similar€theory).€€His€proposal€is€that€there€wereÏmany€episodes€of€additional€sedimentation,€but€the€extra€sediment€was€eroded€away€and€thusÏnot€preserved€in€the€rocks.€€This€additional,€hypothetical,€sediment€is€not€necessary€in€theÏtheory€I€am€proposing.€€We€can€suggest€that€the€existing€sediment€is€generally€close€to€whatÏwas€originally€deposited,€except€when€there€is€definite€evidence€of€a€significant€erosionalÏunconformity.Ð '(#'(# ÐÌò òÓ  Óòòó óRates€of€biological€changeóóÐ ø  ÐÓìZÓ€€à ' àThese€relatively€rapid€geological€changes€and€resulting€ecological€change€could€also€generateÐ äø Ðfaster€rates€of€biological€change.€€Rates€of€evolution€observed€today€(microevolution€andÏspeciation)€are€much€faster€than€the€rates€calculated€from€the€fossil€record€as€dated€by€radiometricÏdating€methods€(Fig.€4),€by€7„10€orders€of€magnitude.€€Acceptance€of€the€radiometric€time€scaleÏrequires€one€to€conclude€that€observed€modern€evolutionary€rates€do€not€reflect€reality€(e.g.ÏGould€1997„1998)€(another€ad„hoc€hypothesis?).€€However,€acceptance€of€the€extended„floodÏtheory€would€suggest€that€rates€of€biological€change€in€the€past€may€have€been€as€fast,€and€quiteÏpossibly€much€faster€on€the€average,€than€the€rates€measured€today.€€If€the€earth€today€is€moreÏgeologically€and€ecologically€stable€than€it€was€during€much€of€its€history€(this€would€be€true€inÏeither€a€traditional€flood€or€extended„flood€theory),€it€is€likely€that€rates€of€evolution€in€the€pastÏwould€have€been€faster€than€today€(Brand€1997,€ch.€12;€Wood€2002).€Ìà ' àIn€other€words,€perhaps€the€geological€and€biological€data€are€hard€to€reconcile€with€eitherÏextreme€„€most€of€the€geological€record€in€a€one„year€flood€at€one€extreme,€and€millions€of€yearsÏat€the€other€extreme.€€Real€rates€of€geological€and€biological€change€may€fit€best€with€a€time€spanÏof€the€order€of€magnitude€that€this€proposed€biblical€theory€suggests.ÌÌò òÓ  Óòòó óPaleontological€features€with€time€implicationsóóÐ ¤,¸&* ÐÓá`Óà ' àStromatolites,€reefs,€extensive€bioturbation€of€some€sediments,€fossil€hard€grounds€(marineÏsediments€that€appear€to€have€been€burrowed,€etc.,€when€Ô_ÔlithifiedÔ_Ô€on€the€ocean€floor,€before€beingÏcovered€by€new€sediments),€and€other€features€of€biological€origin€seem€to€require€some€time,€butÐ h/|)- Ðnot€millions€of€years.€€Stromatolites€(Cooper€et€al.€1990,€p.€229„233)€and€reefs€(James€1983:ÏÔ_ÔKiesslingÔ_Ô€et€al.€1999)€seem€to€be€distributed€throughout€the€fossil€record€(Fig.€5),€and€this€seemsÏimpossible€to€explain€in€a€one„year€flood€(because€the€sequence€of€reefs€would€require€manyÏconsecutive€periods€of€time,€of€several€years€to€hundreds€of€years€each).€€More€study€is€needed,Ïbut€it€seems€likely€that€these€features€can€be€explained€in€the€time€frame€of€the€extended„floodÏtheory.€ÌÌò òÓ  Óòòó óCarbonate€sediment€accumulation€ratesóóÐ ` t ÐÓ¸dÓà ' àSeparate€from€the€question€of€whether€a€carbonate€structure€is€a€wave„resistant€reef,€is€theÏtime€required€to€form€extensive€amounts€of€carbonate€sediment€that€seems€to€have€formed€in€situ,Ïcontaining€unsorted€organic€remains€that€do€not€appear€to€be€transported€assemblages.€€AncientÏreefs€(and€other€carbonate€accumulations)€are€generally€much€smaller€than€our€biggest€modernÏreefs€(e.g.€those€in€the€Pacific€Ocean),€and€any€that€did€form€in€situ€would€require€some€time,€butÏperhaps€they€could€be€explained€in€a€short€time€frame.€€This€needs€much€more€study.€ÌÌò òÓ  Óòòó óÔ_ÔEvaporiteÔ_Ô€formationóóÐ ÀÔ  ÐÓZgÓà ' àTo€evaluate€the€time€required€to€form€deposits€generally€interpreted€as€Ô_ÔevaporitesÔ_ÔÏ(accumulations€of€salts€from€evaporation€of€large€volumes€of€water)€requires€that€we€know€whatÏwas€the€actual€mechanism€that€formed€them.€€A€geologic€record€forming€in€a€few€thousand€yearsÏcould€explain€some€Ô_ÔevaporitesÔ_Ô,€but€still€predicts€that€the€processes€that€formed€some€of€theseÏdeposits€(e.g.€the€thick€sequence€of€laminated€Ô_ÔevaporitesÔ_Ô€in€the€Permian€Ô_ÔCastilleÔ_Ô€Fm.)€are€not€yetÏadequately€understood.€€There€are€still€aspects€of€these€processes€that€are€hard€to€understandÏwithin€even€an€extended€flood€theory.€€ÌÌò òÓ  Óòòó óTime€to€form€cyclic€sedimentary€featuresóóÐ    ÐÓ°jÓà ' àSediments€with€tidal€cycles€(one€lamina€deposited€with€each€high€tide)€may€represent€a€timeÏframe€consistent€with€the€theory€suggested€here.€€Discovery€of€these€tidal€cycles€has€changed€theÏinterpreted€time€for€deposition€of€some€rocks€from€thousands€or€millions€of€year,€to€a€few€yearsÏ(e.g.€Archer€and€Ô_ÔKvaleÔ_Ô€1989;€Archer€et€al.€1995;€Brown€et€al.€1990).€€This€is€still€a€challenge€to€aÏtraditional€flood€theory,€but€fits€well€into€an€extended„flood€theory.Ìà ' àFinely€laminated€sediments€usually€interpreted€as€varves€(one€layer€formed€per€year)€needÏmore€study,€as€this€theory€predicts€that€extensive€deposits€of€many€thousands€or€tens€of€thousandsÏof€ð ðvarvesðð€do€not€represent€actual€annual€deposits.€€In€some€cases€there€is€already€evidence€thatÏchallenges€the€Ô_ÔvarveÔ_Ô€interpretation.€€For€example,€some€deposits€interpreted€as€varves€containÏvery€abundant€fossils€that€are€exquisitely€preserved.€€There€does€not€seem€to€be€an€adequateÏexplanation€for€how€these€fossils€could€be€so€well€preserved€unless€they€were€buried€rapidly€(seeÏbelow,€under€taphonomy).Ìà ' àSedimentary€cycles€are€characteristic€of€much€of€the€geological€record.€€These€cycles€(e.g.Ïsuccessive€packages€of€sediment€with€repeating€features€interpreted€as€cycles€of€raising€andÏlowering€sea€level€over€many€thousands€of€years€per€cycle)€are€very€numerous€in€someÏformations.€€To€evaluate€the€time€implications€requires€that€we€understand€the€mechanisms€behindÏthese€cycles.€€Some€may€be€actual€cycles€of€water€level€change,€but€other€mechanisms€should€alsoÏbe€considered,€including€possible€mechanisms€not€yet€discovered.€€Turbidites€were€once€thoughtÏto€represent€cycles€of€several€years€each,€but€are€now€known€to€form€in€minutes€from€underwaterÏÔ_ÔmudslidesÔ_Ô.€€Perhaps€there€are€cyclic€processes€yet€to€be€discovered€that€are€quite€different€fromÏÔ_ÔturbiditesÔ_Ô,€but€are€as€undiscovered€as€Ô_ÔturbiditesÔ_Ô€were€prior€to€the€1950's.Ð h/|)- Їò òÓ  Óòòó óTaphonomyóóÐ ì ÐÓSsÓà ' àThe€field€of€taphonomy€(study€of€the€processes€from€death€to€fossilization)€is€producingÏmuch€fascinating€data.€€Research€has€shown€how€important€rapid€burial€is€for€producing€fossils,Ïespecially€for€well„preserved€vertebrate€fossils.€€It€appears€that€the€implications€of€this€have€notÏbeen€fully€explored.€€Many€formations€with€superbly€preserved€vertebrates€in€large€numbers€(e.g.ÏGreen€River€Fm.€fish€etc.,€Bridger€Fm.€turtles,€ancient€diatomites€with€well„preserved€whales€andÏother€vertebrates€[Ô_ÔEsperanteÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔCaamanoÔ_Ô€et€al.€2002])€are€often€interpreted€as€accumulating€veryÏslowly,€perhaps€centimeters/thousand€years€with€the€fossils€escaping€decay€because€they€are€inÏanoxic€water€(no€oxygen),€but€experiments€have€refuted€the€hypothesis€that€anoxic€water€slows€orÏeliminates€decay€(decay€is€not€slower€in€anoxic€conditions,€it€just€switches€to€anaerobic€bacteria)Ï(Plotnick1986;€Allison€and€Briggs€1991;€Allison€et€al.€1991).€€These€well„preserved€fossils€seemÏto€require€very€rapid€sediment€deposition.€€Ìà ' àThe€other€side€of€the€taphonomy€data€needs€to€be€also€thought€about.€€If€at€least€theÏPaleozoic€and€Mesozoic€were€deposited€within€a€year,€with€systematic€ecological€processes€killingÏand€burying€organisms,€then€most€animals€must€have€been€buried€very€soon€after€death€„€withinÏhours€or€days.€€If€there€was€much€more€time€than€that€between€death€and€burial,€how€couldÏanimals€from€different€ecological€zones€have€been€killed€and€buried€in€the€precise€sequence€thatÏwe€see€in€the€fossil€record,€without€mixing€up€animals€from€different€zones?€€Ìà ' àThe€problem€with€such€consistently€rapid€burial€is€that€it€should€have€preserved€mostly€intact,Ïarticulated€specimens.€€However,€the€vertebrate€fossil€record€(with€definite€exceptions,€asÏmentioned€above)€consists€mostly€of€disarticulated,€scattered€bones€and€teeth.€€Most€of€theseÏdisarticulated€remains€probably€required€several€weeks€or€months€of€decay€before€burial.€€Is€itÏpossible€to€fit€that€many€episodes€(dozens€or€hundreds€of€episodes)€of€several€months€of€decayÏinto€a€one„year€Cambrian€to€Cretaceous€process?ÌÌò òÓ  Óòòó óRelationships€between€fossil€living€areas€and€burial€sites,€and€amount€of€transportóóÐ ø  ÐÓ|Óà ' àSome€flood€theories€require€that€many€or€most€organisms€be€transported€up€to€thousands€ofÏmiles€to€the€areas€where€they€were€fossilizedò ò.€€ó óThis€concept€introduces€problems€in€explainingÐ Ðä Ðsome€fossil€deposits.€€The€extended„flood€theory€may€not€require€so€much€long€distance€transport,Ïbut€this€needs€much€more€study.ÌÌò òWhat€next?€€What€should€we€be€doing€to€improve€our€understanding€of€flood€geology?ó óÐ „"˜ Ðà ' àOur€task€ahead€is€not€to€disprove€conventional€geology,€but€to€develop€alternate€explanationsÏfor€the€evidence.€€That€is€always€the€first€step€for€any€scientific€theory.€€These€theories€are€uniqueÏin€having€been€launched€from€a€platform€of€faith,€but€if€our€faith€is€based€on€truth,€it€will€point€usÏin€the€right€general€direction.€€Our€search€for€truth€may€at€times€follow€a€winding€path€as€we€testÏand€refine€or€reject€various€ideas,€but€it€will€in€time€lead€us€to€more€satisfactory€explanations€forÏthe€data.€€As€we€search,€the€farther€we€get€in€developing€a€theory€that€is€able€to€suggestÏconstructive€new€research€to€be€done,€the€more€it€will€have€promise€of€making€real€progress.€€Ìà ' àIt€seems€doubtful€that€we€can€use€science€to€disprove€conventional€geology€theory€and€theÏevolution€of€life€(in€study€of€the€ancient€past,€proof€or€disproof€is€especially€unlikely),€so€why€doÏwe€continue€this€discussion?€€What€is€the€reason€for€thinking€this€is€important?€€If€a€friend€tells€usÏthere€is€buried€treasure€waiting€to€be€found,€and€gives€a€few€significant€clues,€will€we€take€up€theÏsearch?€€The€answer€will€depend€first€of€all€on€whether€we€believe€his€word€can€be€trusted.€€If€heÏis€a€dear€friend€whom€we€have€found€to€be€eminently€trustworthy€and€practical,€what€would€beÏmore€exciting€and€rewarding€than€to€pursue€the€search€with€vigor?€€Science€has€led€many€to€thinkÐ l/€)- Ðthe€Bible€is€untrustworthy.€€But€for€many€of€us€the€Bible€is€a€reliable€letter€from€our€best€friend,Ïand€if€our€dear€Friend,€who€loved€us€enough€to€die€for€us,€gives€us€some€clues€to€discoveriesÏwaiting€to€be€found,€the€search€is€irresistible.€€In€addition,€the€more€successful€the€search€is,€theÏmore€it€will€vindicate€the€love€letter€it€is€based€on.€€This€search€is€not€about€proof,€or€aboutÏputting€down€those€who€disagree€with€us,€but€about€following€the€promising€leads€given€by€aÏLeader€whom€we€love€and€trust.€Ìà ' àI€believe€several€things€are€needed€at€this€time€to€make€our€flood€theorizing€effortsÏproductive.€€A€concerted€research€effort€is€needed€to€raise€our€prospects€of€success.€€In€recentÏdecades€geology€has€improved€its€understanding€of€many€processes,€and€this€improvedÏunderstanding€is€helpful€to€us€also.€€ñ±ñAnñ±ññ²ñdñ²ññ±ñ€yet€tñ±ñhere€are€still€many€areas€where€a€biblical€theoryÏpredicts€that€new,€even€radically€different,€processes€are€yet€to€be€discovered.€€There€areÏmarvelous€opportunities€for€research€effort€that€will€bring€glory€to€God,€as€long€as€the€research€isÏdone€with€impeccable€care€and€scientific€rigor,€benefitting€whenever€possible€by€the€qualityÏcontrol€of€peer€review.€Ìà ' àI€believe€the€following€are€examples€of€approaches€that€will€be€beneficial€and€important:ÌÌà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Continue,€and€expand,€the€types€of€current€or€recent€research,€on€specific€rock€formations€suchÏas€the€Pisco€Formation,€Yellowstone€fossil€forests,€Bridger€Formation,€Green€RiverÏFormation,€or€specific€phenomena€like€Ô_ÔpaleocurrentsÔ_Ô.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à2.€€Learn€more€about€geology€in€other€parts€of€the€world.€€We€often€base€much€of€our€thinking€onÏNorth€American€geology.€€This€is€a€good€start€(after€all,€how€many€continents€have€GrandÏCanyons?),€but€knowing€more€about€other€places€will€also€be€helpful.€€For€example,€in€atÏleast€part€of€the€Middle€East€the€Paleozoic€is€represented€by€one€continuous€sandstone€whichÏwas€originally€of€immense€size€(Burke€2000).€€Above€that€is€Cretaceous€limestone,€and€thenÏthe€Pleistocene€Ô_ÔLisanÔ_Ô€Formation€in€the€Dead€Sea€rift€valley.€€What€can€this€sequence,€soÏdifferent€from€the€rocks€in€North€America€tell€us?€€ò òÐø '(#'(# Ðó óà0 ' àà ° à3.€€Concerted€study€of€phenomena€that€appear€to€be€ð ðconstraintsðð€on€the€amount€of€needed€time€„Ð äø Ðthat€require€a€considerable€amount€of€time.€€Examples€of€these€are€the€reefs,€Ô_ÔstromatolitesÔ_Ô,Ïtaphonomic€processes,€etc.€€Ultimately€the€data€will€not€lie€to€us,€if€we€take€our€LeaderððsÏinsights€seriously,€so€we€do€not€need€to€avoid€these€challenges.€€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à4.€€Part€of€the€research€on€the€above€mentioned€ð ðconstraintðð€phenomena€should€be€asking€if€theyÏare€really€constraints,€or€just€clues€to€the€existence€of€undiscovered€processes.€€ò òЀ"”'(#'(# Ðó óà0 ' àà ° à5.€€Learn€more€in€general€about€all€parts€of€the€geological€column,€and€the€geographical€andÐ l#€  Ðstratigraphical€distribution€of€features€that€do€seem€to€remain€as€genuine€constraints.€ò ò€ÐX$l!'(#'(# Ðó óà0 ' àà ° à6.€€Quantitative€comparison€of€ancient€rock€formations€with€equivalent€modern€analogues.€ò ò€ó óSomeÐ H%\" Ðancient€formations€seem€to€be€of€a€size€scale€or€character€that€is€very€different€from€anyÏmodern€analogues,€and€some€features€seem€to€imply€a€faster€rate€of€accumulation€than€occursÏtoday,€or€that€the€radiometric€time€scale€suggests.€€Careful€documentation€of€theseÏformations€and€analogues,€including€quantitative€comparisons,€would€allow€more€realisticÏevaluation€of€how€similar€or€different€ancient€geologic€processes€were€from€modernÏprocesses.€€Ð '(#'(# ÐØØÓL€ 5h(#LÓà0 ' àà ° à7.€€Increased€study€of€changes€within€various€groups€of€organisms€through€geological€time,€andÏthe€sequences€of€changing€forms.€€Use€improved€methods€to€evaluate€which€types€of€changesÏseem€to€represent€actual€evolution€within€created€groups€of€animals€and€plants€(e.g.€SchererÏ1993;€Wood€2002ñ»ñ€ñ»ññ¼ñ;€Wood€and€Murray€Ô_Ô2003ñ¼ññ»ñand€other€work€by€the€same€research€groupñ»ñ).Ô_ԀР'(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à8.€€Field€study€of€specific€locations,€applying€our€theories€to€one€basin€at€a€time.€€StudyÐ p/„)- Ðstratigraphic€sections€through€the€deposits€in€the€basin,€and€also€lateral€variations€in€theÏsediments€and€fossils.€€This€type€of€field€work€has€promise€to€greatly€improve€our€efforts€toÏunderstand€flood€processes.Ð '(#'(# Ðà ' àIt€has€been€proposed€that€this€research€effort€would€benefit€from€a€managed€scienceÏapproach,€in€which€research€funding€is€available€for€research€directed€to€the€specific€goals€of€theÏproject.€€That€is€a€good€proposal.€€The€challenge€is€to€find€funding€to€make€it€happen.€€€€ÌÌò òPredictions€of€a€short€age€geology€theoryó óÐ ` t Ðà ' àA€useful€scientific€theory€will€make€predictions€of€what€will€be€discovered€if€the€theory€isÏcorrect.à ž àIf€these€predictions€stimulate€discovery€through€research€that€would€likely€not€have€beenÐ 8L  Ðdone€otherwise,€the€theory€has€become€a€productive€scientific€theory.€€There€are€a€number€ofÏpredictions€that€result€from€short€age€geology€theories,€and€the€following€list€includes€examples€ofÏgeneral€predictionsñ³ñ€or€conclusionsñ³ñ,€and€they€could€be€subdivided€into€more€specificñ´ñ,€testable,ñ´ñÏpredictions.€€Further€study€will€no€doubt€generate€additional€types€of€predictions.€ÌÌÓ  Óà0 @' àòòPredictions€following€from€any€type€of€short€age€geology€theory€Ð ÀÔ  Ð(within€a€time€frame€compatible€with€biblical€history):óóÐ ¬À ÐÓåšÓà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Radiometric€dates€do€not€indicate€real€time€for€at€least€the€Phanerozoic€rocks.€€They€seem€toÏindicate€relative€age€(which€event€came€before€which€other€event),€but€not€absolute€age.€€I€doÏnot€think€the€challenge€of€radiometric€dates€will€be€answered€by€piecemeal€explanations,Ïdifferent€for€each€method,€but€will€require€some€basic€new€discovery€of€a€process€thatÏuniformly€affects€all€dating€methods.€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à2.€€If€Noahððs€ark€is€ever€found€and€is€dated€with€carbon€14,€the€date€will€not€be€a€few€thousandÏyears,€but€will€indicate€infinite€age.€€This€is€because€the€ark€was€built€from€pre„flood€wood,Ïwhich€was€apparently€living€before€living€things€contained€significant€amounts€of€carbon€14.€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à3.€€Most€geologic€processes€occurred€relatively€rapidly€„€much€more€of€the€geologic€column€wasÏformed€rapidly€than€most€scientists€now€believe.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à4.€€Features€in€the€rocks€interpreted€as€Ô_ÔMilankovitchÔ_Ô€cycles€(cyclic€processes€controlled€by€climateÏcycles,€representing€cycles€of€hundreds€to€tens€of€thousands€of€years€each)€did€not€resultÏfrom€such€long€cycles.€€They€formed€rapidly,€from€some€other€process.€€Other€cyclicÏprocesses€in€rocks€also€were€rapid,€not€occupying€eons€of€time.€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à5.€€Some€finely€laminated€rock€is€generally€interpreted€as€varves,€which€are€laminations€formedÏone€per€year,€as€occurs€today€in€some€lakes€in€glaciated€areas.€€Our€prediction€is€that€theseÏcycles€of€thousands€of€fine€laminations€in€ancient€deposits€were€not€varves.€€There€are€otherÏmechanisms€to€be€discovered€that€will€explain€these€finely€laminated€rocks.Ð '(#'(# ÐÌÓ  Óà @' àòòAdditional€predictions€following€from€an€extended€flood€theory:óóÐ '0!$ ÐÓÁ¢Óà ' àà0 ž àà ' àThere€are€not€many€additional€predictions,€beyond€those€listed€above.€€Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Stromatolites,€reefs,€trace€fossils,€dessication€cracks,€etc.€will€generally€be€explained€the€sameÏas€explained€by€conventional€geological€theory.€€They€can€be€explained€within€the€time€frameÏof€the€extended€flood€theory€without€straining€the€theory.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à2.€€The€average€thickness€of€sediment€deposited€per€year€was€one€to€several€feet.€€The€rate€mayÏhave€varied,€from€some€truly€catastrophic€episodes€to€some€time€periods€with€no€netÏaccumulation€of€sediment.€€Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à3.€€Tidal€cycles€in€the€rocks,€with€about€two€lamination€formed€each€day,€will€be€more€common€inÏancient€rocks€than€now€recognized.€Ðh/|)-'(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à4.€€Sequences€of€species€or€genera€of€organisms€resulting€from€evolution€during€the€deposition€ofÏthe€sediments€will€be€found,€in€many,€and€perhaps€most,€parts€of€the€fossil€record.€€The€timeÏframe€for€this€deposition€could€have€been€long€enough€for€rapid€microevolution€andÏspeciation€to€occur.€Ð '(#'(# ÐÌòòÓ  ÓAdditional€predictions€if€most€of€geological€record€formed€in€one€year:óó€Ð ˆ œ ÐÓ¨Óà0 ' àà ° à1.€€Stromatolites,€Ô_ÔoncolitesÔ_Ô,€and€related€structures€would€have€to€be€formed€within€the€rocks,Ïfrom€changes€after€the€rocks€were€deposited,€because€there€would€not€have€been€enoughÏtime€for€them€to€form€while€the€rocks€were€being€deposited.€Ð '(#'(# Ð2.€€Structures€called€reefs€were€really€debris€flows,€etc.,€€or€reefs€grown€before€the€flood.Ìà0 ' àà ° à3.€€That€part€of€the€rocks€formed€during€the€one„year€catastrophe€would€not€have€dessicationÏcracks€(mud€cracks)€or€other€similar€features,€because€they€require€weeks€or€months€to€formÏat€each€level€where€they€occur.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à4.€€The€fossil€record€does€not€contain€numerous€successive€episodes€of€animal€death,€with€eachÏepisode€followed€by€several€months€of€decay€and€disarticulation.€€There€would€not€be€timeÏfor€these€successive€episodes.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à5.€€The€majority€of€Phanerozoic€rock€formations€were€deposited€at€very€rapid,€catastrophic€rates,Ïequivalent€to€at€least€the€magnitude€of€a€modern€flash€flood,€continuing€essentially€nonstopÏon€a€global€scale.Ð '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° à6.€€Most€of€the€fossil€record€(the€part€formed€during€one€year)€does€not€record€anyÏmicroevolution€or€macroevolution€occurring€during€the€time€when€these€rocks€wereÏdeposited,€because€there€was€not€nearly€enough€time€for€that.€€Any€stratigraphic€changes€inÏspecies€or€higher€taxa€of€organisms€were€the€result€of€some€type€of€sorting€process,€notÏevolution.ò òÐ 4'(#'(# ÐÌConclusionó óà  àÐ ø  Ðà ' àMy€personal€philosophy€regarding€the€attempt€to€reconcile€ancient€history€with€Scripture€isÏthat€it€is€not€wise€to€change€oneððs€position€too€readily.€€If€a€given€theory€of€geology,€e.g.,€is€basedÏon€and€consistent€with€Scripture€but€we€donððt€know€how€to€fit€it€with€the€scientific€data,€that€mayÏjust€reflect€the€lack€of€adequate€knowledge€of€ancient€processes€and€especially€of€how€thoseÏprocesses€may€differ€from€our€modern€analogues.€€This€is€even€more€relevant€if€we€have€reason€toÏthink€that€ancient€processes€(e.g.€global€catastrophe)€were€quite€different€from€anything€we€haveÏever€observed.€€On€the€other€hand,€if€this€impasse€does€not€seem€to€ease€up€with€more€study,€andÏperhaps€gets€worse,€it€may€be€necessary€to€decide€that€we€have€something€basically€wrong€in€ourÏtheory.€€Ìà ' àThere€are€those€who€have€done€that,€and€have€decided€that€we€need€to€reinterpret€ScriptureÏto€fit€science€as€understood€by€the€majority€of€scientists€today.€€I€understand€their€reasons€forÏdoing€so,€but€I€believe€there€is€reason€for€some€of€us€to€try€a€different€approach.€€I€believe€God€isÏmuch€smarter€than€we€are,€and€has€shown€a€level€of€interest€in€communicating€with€us€that€is€notÏconsistent€with€an€allegorizing€of€Genesis.€€However,€a€literal€one„week€creation,€global€flood,Ïshort€time€theory€does€not€require€that€all€or€most€of€the€geological€column€be€placed€within€theÏone„year€flood.€€There€is€no€scriptural€reason€to€insist€that€it€be€all€explained€in€one€year.€€ThisÏopens€up€other€possibilities€that€should€be€carefully€and€prayerfully€pursued€and€compared€withÏthe€data.€€Even€this€concept€will€require€extensive€research€and€consideration€of€new€ways€ofÏexplaining€some€phenomena,€different€from€already€understood€geological€processes.€€ButÏperhaps€it€has€much€more€possibility€of€being€correct€than€our€traditional€most„of„geology„in„one„Ð h/|)- Ðyear€flood€concepts.€€This€extended„flood€theory€should€be€studied,€not€assumed€to€be€correct,Ïbut€also€not€rejected€out€of€hand€because€it€is€different€from€what€we€have€believed.€€Ìà ' àà ž àà  àà Œ àà  àà z àà À àà  àà p àà È àÌò òAcknowledgmentsó óÐ °Ä Ðà ' àThe€basic€ideas€presented€here€are€not€new€with€me,€but€have€come€from€discussions€andÏtime€in€geology€field€work€with€various€persons,€representing€varying€philosophical€perspectives,Ïwho€may€or€may€not€wish€to€have€their€names€associated€with€this€topic.€€Most€important,€I€amÏthankful€that€God€cared€enough€to€give€us€guidance€to€help€us€find€our€way€through€theÏchallenges€that€science€has€presented€to€Scripture.ÌÌò òÌLiterature€Citedó óÐ $  ÐÔ‡ X3FXXX3FԀРü  Ðà0 ' àà ° àAllison,€P.€A.,€and€D.€E.€Briggs.€€1991.òò€€óóTaphonomy€of€Ô_ÔnonmineralizedÔ_Ô€tissues.òò€€P.€25„70€In:Ð èü  ÐTaphonomy:€Releasing€the€Data€Locked€in€the€Fossil€Recordóó.€€New€York:€Plenum€Press.€ÐÔè '(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° 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ÐPresbyterian€and€Reformed€Publishing€Co.€Ô#†X3FXX X3FRÚ#ÔÐD%X"'(#'(# Ðà0 ' àà ° àWood,€T.€C.€€2002.€€The€AGE„Ô_ÔingÔ_Ô€process:€rapid€post„flood€Ô_ÔintrabaraminicÔ_Ô€diversification€causedÏby€altruistic€genetic€elements€(Ô_ÔAGEsÔ_Ô).€€ñÍñòòñÍñOriginsñÍñóóñÍñ€No.€54:5„34.Ð'0!$'(#'(# ÐñËñà0 ' àà ° àñËñWood,€T.€C.,€and€M.€J.€Murray.€€2003.€€ñÌñòòñÌñUnderstanding€the€Pattern€of€LifeñÌñóóñÌñ.€€Nashville,€TN:Ð ("% ÐÔ_ÔBroadmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔHolmanÔ_Ô€PublishersñÉññÇñ,€ñÇññÉññÊñ.ñÊññÉññÇñNashville,€ñÇññÇñTNñÇññÉñÐ '(#'(# ÐÌ8/6/2003ÌÌÌÐ  -¤'+ Ðò òFigure€legendsó óÐ ì ÐÌFigure€1.€€Rates€of€erosion,€sedimentation,€and€other€geological€processes,€according€to€threeÏtheories€of€earth€history.€€A€„€most€of€Phanerozoic€geological€record€in€a€one„year€flood;€B€„Ïextended€flood€theory,€with€active€geological€processes€beginning€soon€after€creation€andÏextending€for€several€thousand€years;€C€„€geological€record€formed€over€the€conventionalÏgeological€time€scale.ÌÌFigure€2.€€Relationship€between€sedimentation€rates€and€the€time€span€over€which€theÏmeasurements€were€taken€(after€Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ô€1981).€€A€„€average€sedimentation€rates,€on€a€log/logÏscale;€B€„€same€data€but€with€time€plotted€on€a€linear€scale.ÌÌFigure€3.€€Comparison€of€two€models€to€explain€the€shortage€of€sediment€in€the€geologicalÏcolumn.€€Diagrams€in€box€portray€the€hypothesized€original€amount€of€sediment€deposited,€forÏeach€model,€and€(center)€the€observed€sedimentary€record.€€In€the€Brett€and€Baird€model€(diagramÏmodified€from€Brett€and€Baird€1986)€there€were€successive€episodes€of€sedimentation€followed€byÏthe€erosion€of€part€of€the€sediment€before€the€next€sedimentation€event.€€Extensive€burrowing€byÏanimals€obliterated€some€contacts€between€sediment€layers€so€that€individual€layers€canððt€beÏdistinguished.€€In€the€Brand€model€no€sediment€erosion€is€assumed€except€where€indicated€byÏdefinite€evidence€of€such.Ìà ' àThe€sequences€of€drawings€above€and€below€the€box€portray€the€sequence€of€events€in€eachÏmodel.€€Numbers€indicate€depositional€events,€and€arrows€indicate€erosion€of€the€sedimentÏoutlined€with€dotted€lines.ÌÌFigure€4.€€Evolutionary€rates€measures€in€modern€settings€and€calculated€from€the€fossil€recordÏ(fossil€calculations€based€on€radiometric€time€scale).€€Evolutionary€rates€are€measured€in€unitsÏcalled€Ô_ÔdarwinsÔ_Ô.€€A€Ô_ÔdarwinÔ_Ô€is€a€specific,€measurable,€amount€of€morphological€change.ñ¹ñÌÌFigure€5.€€Distribution€of€reefs€in€the€Phanerozoic€fossil€record.ñ¹ññºñ€€Data€from€James€1983,€andÏÔ_ÔKiesslingÔ_Ô€et€al.€Ô_Ô1999.ñºñÔ_ÔÐ  ¨ ¼ Ðò òTable€1.€€Comparison€of€three€geological€theoriesó ó.Ð ì ÐòòÔ‡&/%%XX3FÔA.€€flood€theory€with€Paleozoic€and€Mesozoic€in€a€one„year€floodóó.Ð Üð ÐÒ(€à€°(#°(#(ÒAdvantages:Ìà ' àConsistent€with€ScriptureÌà ' àEasier€to€reconcile€with€human€reactions€Ìà ' à€€€to€Noahððs€flood€messageÌÌÌÐ à ô ÐDisadvantages:Ìà S àNot€consistent€with€radiometric€datingÌà S àVery€hard€to€reconcile€with€manyÌà S à€€€lines€of€scientific€dataÌà S àSuch€a€catastrophic€process€should€mix€Ìà S à€€€up€organisms€from€widely€different€Ìà S à€€€ecological€zonesÌÐ ¼ Ð ÐÒ(€à€°ü°ü(ÒÐ tˆ  ÐB.€€Geological€processes€over€several€thousand€years€from€sin€to€the€presentÌÒ([Â[°(#°(#(ÒAdvantages:Ìà ' àConsistent€with€ScriptureÌà ' àFits€much€more€of€the€scientific€data€„€Ìà ' à€€€Explains€the€sedimentological€and€€Ìà ' à€€€Paleontological€data€much€betterÌà ' àExplains€the€abundant€data€requiring€Ìà ' à€€€some€time€(but€not€millions€of€yrs):Ìà ' àà ž àStromatolitesÌà ' àà ž àReefsÌà ' àà ž àExtensive€bioturbationÌà ' àà ž àFossil€hard€groundsÌà ' àà ž àNon„catastrophic€sedimentologyÌà ' àEasier€to€explain€the€lack€of€fossil€Ìà ' à€€€mixing,€since€it€is€not€nearly€as€Ìà ' à€€€catastrophic€as€theory€AÌà ' àMore€of€the€fossil€species€sequences€Ìà ' à€€€could€be€result€of€real€adaptation€ÌÐ ÈÜ" ÐDisadvantages:Ìà D àNot€consistent€with€radiometric€datingÌà D àHarder€to€reconcile€with€human€Ìà D à€€€reactions€to€Noahððs€flood€messageÌà D àStill€faces€challenges€before€it€will€Ìà D à€€€explain€most€of€the€data:Ìà D àà » àCooling€of€Ô_ÔlaccolithsÔ_Ô,€etc.Ìà D àà » àRadiometric€datingÌà D àà » àMoving€continents€rapidlyÌà D àà » àOthersÐ èü+ ÐÒ([Â[° ° (ÒC.€€Conventional€long€ages€geological€theoryÐ €!”+ ÐÒ(€à€°(#°(#(ÒAdvantages:Ìà ' àConsistent€with€radiometric€datingÌà ' àEasier€to€explain€much€of€the€geological€Ìà ' à€€€dataÌà ' àEasier€to€explain€more€of€the€fossil€Ìà ' à€€€sequences€of€organismsÌà ' àTime€can€solve€any€problem,€just€as€GodÌà ' à€€€can€be€used€to€solve€any€difficulty€inÌà ' à€€€a€creationist€view.ÌÌÐ ô*%6 ÐDisadvantages:Ìà S àNot€consistent€with€straight„forward€Ìà S à€€€Scriptural€accountÌà S àDifficult€to€reconcile€with€some€important€Ìà S à€€€lines€of€data:Ìà S àà Ê àNot€nearly€enough€sediment€for€that€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€much€time€Ìà S àà Ê àMuch€sediment€seems€to€reflect€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€relatively€rapid€processesÌà S àà Ê àVery€widespread€sedimentary€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€formationsÌà S àà Ê àWorldwide€correlated€events€(e.g€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€Ô_ÔAgerÔ_Ô€books)Ìà S àà Ê àSome€well€preserved€fossil€deposits€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€seem€to€require€rapid€geological€Ìà S àà Ê à€€€processesÔ#†X3FX%&/%$æ#Ôà / àà ¦ àÐ @/T)E ÐÒ(€à€°ü°ü(Òà ' àÐ ì ÐÌÒ½°Òò òTable€2.ó ó€€ò òSample€rates€of€sediment€accumulationó ó€for€different€amounts€of€time€forÐ ÄØ Ðaccumulation€of€the€geological€column,€based€on€the€average€modern€rate.€€These€are€onlyÏaverages,€and€do€not€imply€that€sedimentation€was€uniform€through€time.ÌÌ€€€€€Average€modern€rate€€€(Ô_ÔSadlerÔ_Ô€graph,€measurement€over€one€year)à0 - àÐx Œ-(#-(# Ѐ€€€€€€€€~€500€ft./thousand€years€=€0.5€ft./yearÌÌ€€€€€òòTime€for€Phanerozoic:à ‡ àà Í à2,000€yrsà } àà Õ à5,000€yrsóóà0 … àÐ<P … (#… (# Ðà 4 àà « àà " àÌ€€€€€Average€of€5,000„6,000€ft.€of€à Í à2„3€ft./yrà } àà0 Õ à1„1.2€ft./yrÐ( Õ(#Õ(# Ѐ€€€€€€€€sediment€in€PhanerozoicÌÌ€€€€€10,000€ft.€of€sedimentà ‡ àà0 Í à4€ft./yrà % àà0}Í(#Í(#àà0Õ}(#}(#à2€ft./yrà - àÐØì Õ(#Õ(# ÐÌ€€€€€òòGrand€Canyon€sediments€deposited€in€1,500€yrs€óóÐ °Ä Ѐ€€€€€€€€€Ô_ÔprefloodÔ_Ô;€5,000€ft.€of€sediment€€€=€€3.3€ft./yr