ÿWPCŒ ²–iÕ÷ˆÝº4ì÷AeÅAúa(ÁÑîÝ©ì{TÑUž(×¾4OG\)¹!ÝÂ)”_xr‹~_V +rh{Lë óAÒ? ô9âÆãœ*Ÿm¹Í®PpXød”3‘³Ôäó˜ÐðÅ"S½Ae^ÝÕ‡¥V˜)çížyjÃtM­])’ãé±s\…µ$€Ñi9M¼ƒîofàÒiÉAQ3Aƒ„ND#!¿›û,RËáZ;úòq1U^e7J“º™»ŠS¶ÍÅJËnÁ#UÈ~{¿æ {ËòBŒžŸ‘³_¾Ë@å V‡¢¼¨Í³ŒU‹‚}(NºO8 <îÊV9¬ïê ÊdÊJ2nûiI Wp 4EB”¾Ž”ó§(,qI‰aÿeEà]ÿÛ”~ý…“ìlúT q6ز ¾MãI(Óåþ[Ц‹&îý’¢3ʤ©Pû7jÜ®bR ¯ž'ŽSIñ[y_×1ÿ|`Fôc· Ëlc¿ìã!“аŸ¡ú„ˆ±ñJƒîmï@?ÏcbœJø»­­‹`ö²E»‰H-ösó©o}4‡‰:6%ž8`>p¢ÈWrÃWy¡)NˆÙwêF¿9¶$æÐ¼?œ}ðáÏU>à %b$U@(hnXx 0ÒÐ#!¢NÃ^ Åw@Ñ4% m'UN>,xÐðA`&UniversScalable& ù*Ͼ¦ `(CG TimesScalable#|wó «,xÐðA`&UniversScalable&&txÐðPö»7û&P*Ͼ¦ `(CG TimesScalableXXwϾ¦ P쉊7ûXP(ª–$¡¡Ñ8€rà&%dØdØ8ÑÑ€ÑÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÑ  ÑÔ€Xf~X%&ÔÔ€X¿XXXf~Ô˜HP OfficeJet R80xi0X,,,,0X0Ø¥X-Æ êEëƒìƒíEîƒïEðƒñEòƒóEË„¼,\Suite8\Prog ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularÝ ƒ–!ÝÑ8€rà&%dØdÈ8ÑÑ€ÑÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÑ  ÑÔ€XæVX%&ÔÔ€XƒîXXXæVÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  ÓÓo[°X°'ž A m ÀpÈ xÐ (#€%Ø'0*ˆ,à.813è5@8˜:ð<H? A°œXoÓò òÔ€X-äXXXƒîÔWHAT€ARE€THE€LIMITS€OF€DEATH€IN€PARADISE?ó óÐ ° ÐÌLeonard€Brand,€Ph.D.ÌProfessor€of€Biology€and€PaleontologyÌÔ_ÔLomaÔ_Ô€Linda€UniversityÌÌÓ  ÓAbstract:Ìà ' àIn€a€perfect,€created€world,€will€there€be€any€death€or€decay€of€plants€or€animals?€€The€goalÏof€this€paper€will€be€to€attempt€to€clarify€the€issues€in€order€to€make€it€less€likely€that€we€willÏsettle€for€superficial€answers.€€The€discussion€will€evaluate€the€Biblical€and€E.€G.€White€accountÏof€the€original€creation€and€the€recreated€new€earth,€and€whether€our€common€ideas€aboutÏparadise€are€actually€supported€by€these€sources.€€Several€issues€will€be€considered:€Ìà ' àI)à ž àwill€there€be€a€decay€process€that€recycles€nutrients?€€Ð À  Ðà ' àII)à ž àwill€no€animals€at€all€be€eaten,€or€might€this€apply€only€to€higher€animals?Ð ¬ü  Ðà ' àIII)à0 ž àwill€mammals€and€other€animals€not€only€be€free€from€predation,€but€also€live€forever?€Ð˜è ž(#ž(# ÐÓ  ÓÌÓ  ÓÌà ' àIn€the€original€earth€as€it€was€created,€and€in€the€new€earth,€was€there€and€will€there€be€noÏdecay€and€no€death€of€animals€or€plants?€€Do€all€living€things€live€forever€in€a€perfect€world?€€ToÏattempt€to€answer€this€question€may€seem€arrogant€or€presumptuous,€and€in€fact€it€would€be,Ïsince€we€haven't€been€there€and€we€have€been€given€very€little€information€on€the€subject.€€Thus€IÏwill€not€try€to€answer€the€question,€but€my€goal€will€be€to€clarify€the€issues,€so€we€will€be€lessÏlikely€to€settle€for€superficial€answers.€€The€discussion€will€cite€the€Biblical€and€E.€G.€WhiteÏaccount€of€the€original€creation€and€the€recreated€new€earth,€as€commonly€understood,€and€willÏevaluate€what€that€account€says€and€what€it€does€not€say,€and€whether€our€common€ideas€aboutÏparadise€are€actually€supported€by€these€sources.€€Ìà ' àI€am€aware€that€some€of€these€citations€may€not€be€intended€as€literalistically€as€they€areÏoften€interpreted.€€For€example,€Isaiah€11:6„9€wñÚñereñÚññÛñasñÛñ€actually€part€of€a€prophecy€of€the€fall€andÏrestoration€of€Israel,€and€uses€a€lot€of€figurative€language.€€However,€I€will€use€the€mostÏconservative€reading€of€these€texts,€and€if€they€were€not€meant€to€be€interpreted€thatÏconservatively,€this€will€strengthen,€rather€than€weaken,€ñÝñmost€of€Ô_ÔñÝñmyÔ_Ô€conclusions.Ìà ' àOne€danger€that€I€will€try€to€avoid€is€the€acceptance€of€a€new€idea€or€approach€just€because€itÏis€new€and€tantalizing.€€The€other€danger€that€is€just€as€necessary€to€avoid€is€the€persistent,Ïunquestioning€acceptance€of€an€old€idea€just€because€it€has€been€around€so€long.Ìà ' àIn€a€previous€paper€(Brand€€1985€,€Origins€v.€12:71„88)€I€suggested€that€the€best€way€forÏScripture€and€science€to€interact€is€for€science€to€challenge€us€to€consider€new€ideas,€and€then€toÏlet€Scripture€be€the€standard€to€help€us€evaluate€those€ideas.€€I€will€use€that€approach€in€this€paper,Ïwith€scientific€information€suggesting€a€variety€of€options€that€can€be€compared€with€what€GodÏhas€told€us€about€the€original€creation€and€the€new€earth.€€It€could€be€argued€that€we€should€giveÏequal€weight€to€science€and€revelation,€and€be€willing€to€recognize€that€science€can€show€us€thatÏrevelation€is€wrong.€€The€more€experience€I€have€in€science€and€the€more€that€Jesus€becomes€realÏto€me,€the€more€naive€that€approach€appears.€€For€instance€in€the€topic€under€discussion€in€thisÏpaper,€our€experience€with€death€has€been€limited€to€one€ecological€system€that€involves€death€forÏâ âevery€creature.€€Our€ability€to€scientifically€analyze€the€issues€is€limited€to€that€one€ecologicalÐ T,¤'+ Ðsystem.€€We€can€suggest€some€of€the€implications€of€a€different€system,€but€we€have€no€ability€toÏdetermine€whether€or€not€God€could€make€such€a€system€work.€€Ìâ âà ' àWe€will€also€examine€several€hypotheses€and€evaluate€the€factors€for€and€against€each€one.€ÏThis€multiple€hypothesis€approach€helps€to€keep€us€from€being€superficial€in€our€reasoning;€ñÜñeg.ñÜññÜñe.g.ñÜñ,€ifÏthe€evidence€is€against€one€hypothesis€there€is€a€tendency€to€jump€to€an€opposite€hypothesisÏwithout€realizing€that€there€might€be€several€other€possibilities€along€the€way€that€need€to€beÏconsidered.€ÌÌò òThe€revealed€information€about€paradiseó óÐ ° ` Ðà ' àThe€Bible€(Ô_ÔNIVÔ_Ô)€and€E.€G.€White€give€us€the€following€information:Ìà ' àSC€p.€9.€€The€fair€earth,€as€it€came€from€the€Creator's€hand,€bore€no€blight€of€decay€orÏshadow€of€the€curse.Ìà ' àPP€p.€62.€€As€they€witnessed€in€drooping€flower€and€falling€leaf€the€first€signs€of€decay,€AdamÏand€his€companion...€€The€death€of€the€frail,€delicate€flowers€was€indeed€a€cause€of€sorrow;€butÏwhen€the€goodly€trees€cast€off€their€leaves,€the€scene€brought€vividly€to€mind€the€stern€fact€thatÏdeath€is€the€portion€of€every€living€thing.Ìà ' àEarly€Writings€p.€18.€€(in€a€vision€in€which€she€seemed€to€be€on€the€new€earth)€I€saw€anotherÏfield€full€of€all€kinds€of€flowers,€and€as€I€plucked€them,€I€cried€out,€"they€will€never€fade."€€Next€IÏsaw€a€field€of€tall€grass,€most€glorious€to€behold;€it€was€living€green€and€had€a€reflection€of€silverÏand€gold,€as€it€waved€proudly€to€the€glory€of€King€Jesus.€€Then€we€entered€a€field€full€of€all€kindsÏof€beasts€„€the€lion,€the€lamb,€the€leopard,€and€the€wolf,€all€together€in€perfect€union.€€We€passedÏthrough€the€midst€of€them,€and€they€followed€on€peaceably€after.€€Ìà ' àIsaiah€11:6„9.€€The€wolf€will€live€with€the€lamb,€the€leopard€will€lie€down€with€the€goat,€theÏcalf€and€the€lion€and€the€yearling€together;€and€a€little€child€will€lead€them.€€The€cow€will€feed€withÏthe€bear,€their€young€will€lie€down€together,€and€the€lion€will€eat€straw€like€the€ox.€€The€infant€willÏplay€near€the€hole€of€the€cobra,€and€the€young€child€put€his€hand€into€the€viper's€nest.€€They€willÏneither€harm€nor€destroy€on€all€my€holy€mountain,€for€the€earth€will€be€full€of€the€knowledge€ofÏthe€Lord€as€the€waters€cover€the€sea.€Ìà ' àIsaiah€65:25.€€The€wolf€and€the€lamb€will€feed€together,€and€the€lion€will€eat€straw€like€theÏox,€but€dust€will€be€the€serpent's€food.€€They€will€neither€harm€nor€destroy€on€all€my€holyÏmountain,€says€the€Lord.Ìà ' àPP€p.€68.€€To€Adam€,€the€offering€of€the€first€sacrifice€was€a€most€painful€ceremony...€€It€wasÏthe€first€time€he€had€ever€witnessed€death,€and€he€knew€that€had€he€been€obedient€to€God,€thereÏwould€have€been€no€death€of€man€or€beast.Ìà ' àCD€p.€396.€€One€animal€was€not€to€destroy€another€animal€for€food.Ìà ' àRevelation€21:4.€€He€will€wipe€every€tear€from€their€eyes.€€There€will€be€no€more€death€orÏmourning€or€crying€or€pain,€for€the€old€order€of€things€has€passed€away.Ìà ' àGreat€Controversy€p.€676.€€(commenting€on€Isaiah€11:6,€9)€Pain€cannot€exist€in€theÏatmosphere€of€heaven.€€There€will€be€no€more€tears,€no€funeral€trains,€no€badges€of€mourning.Ìà ' àÌà ' àSeveral€specific€conditions€in€paradise€are€described€above:Ìà ' àà ž àSeveral€kinds€of€mammals€are€listed,€that€will€not€hurt€each€other€or€us.Ìà ' àà ž àPoisonous€snakes€will€not€harm€us.Ìà ' àà ž àLions€will€eat€vegetable€matter.Ð ô-¤'+ Ðà ' àà ž àAnimals€are€not€to€destroy€each€other€for€food.Ìà ' àà ž àà0  àà ž àSerpent's€will€eat€dust€(I€wonder€if€this€is€a€correct€translation,€or€what€the€Ð  (# (# Ðà ' àà ž àà  àoriginal€meaning€was).Ìà ' àà ž àThere€will€be€no€pain€or€tears.Ìà ' àà ž àFlowers€will€not€fade.Ìà ' àà ž àThere€will€be€no€decay.ÌÌà ' àWe€sometimes€interpret€this€to€mean€that€no€animals€or€plants€will€ever€die€in€the€new€earth,Ïand€there€will€not€even€be€any€decay€of€vegetable€matter.€€Is€this€conclusion€the€only€one€that€isÏconsistent€with€the€brief€prophetic€comments,€or€have€we€read€too€much€in€between€the€lines?€ÏSeveral€issues€will€be€considered:€Ìà ' àI)à ž àwill€there€be€a€decay€process€that€recycles€nutrients?€€Ð t$  Ðà ' àII)à ž àwill€no€animals€at€all€be€eaten,€or€might€this€apply€only€to€higher€animals?Ð `  Ðà ' àIII)à0 ž àwill€mammals€and€other€animals€not€only€be€free€from€predation,€but€also€live€forever?€ÐLü ž(#ž(# ÐFor€each€of€these€issues€we€will€outline€several€options,€than€towards€the€end€of€the€paper€we€willÏevaluate€each€option€in€relation€to€revealed€information.Ìà ' àThis€discussion€will€make€the€assumption€that€the€new€earth€will€be€a€recreation€of€theÏoriginal€earth€and€its€biological€realm€as€it€was€before€sin,€and€thus€it€is€fair€to€compare€ourÏbiological€world€with€the€Biblical€statements€about€the€new€earth€and€evaluate€the€implications€asÏto€what€changes€have€occurred€as€the€result€of€sin.€€I€am€also€making€the€assumption€that€God€didÏnot€make€a€complete€overhaul€of€the€nature€of€life€after€sin,€but€that€the€biological€world€now€isÏapproximately€as€it€was€at€creation,€except€for€the€degenerative€effects€of€sin.€€This€implies€thatÏeven€though€there€may€have€been€a€lot€of€change,€the€changes€that€occurred€will€not€be€totallyÏmysterious€but€will€be€at€least€potentially€understandable€as€our€scientific€knowledge€improves.€€ItÏshould€be€possible€for€us€to€suggest€plausible€genetic€mechanisms€for€at€least€some€of€theÏchanges.€€Our€task€here€will€be€ñÞñto€ñÞñask€what€were€the€nature€of€those€degenerative€changes€inÏterms€of€decay€and€death.à À à€€€Ð Hø ÐÌò òI.€€Decayó óÐ  Ð Ðà ' àWhat€became€of€apple€cores€in€the€Garden€of€Eden?€€It€does€not€seem€reasonable€to€suggestÏthat€they€accumulated€and€lasted€forever.€€Do€the€statements€indicating€no€decay€in€Eden€refer€toÏthe€decay€involved€in€recycling€nutrients,€or€is€that€trying€to€make€them€mean€much€more€thanÏwas€intended?€€In€PP€p.€62€the€first€signs€of€decay€are€given€as€falling€leaf€and€drooping€flower,Ïwhich€indicates€that€there€were€some€changes€in€the€plant€world,€and€ñßñthese€ñßñwere€the€beginning€ofÏthe€spread€of€death€to€things€that€did€not€previously€die.€€The€falling€leaves€reminded€Adam€andÏEve€that€they€too€would€die.€€Does€the€use€of€the€term€"decay"€in€these€references€and€others€likeÏthem€refer€to€the€bacterial€breakdown€and€recycling€of€organic€refuse€(apple€cores;€dung;€fallenÏtwigs),€or€is€this€more€likely€a€general€reference€to€the€intrusion€of€death€and€suffering€into€theÏcreation?€€Perhaps€we€tend€to€read€our€specific,€technical€definitions€into€words€that€were€usedÏwith€a€more€general€meaning.Ìà ' àIf€we€interpret€the€statements€discussing€decay€as€referring€to€the€specific€process€of€bacterialÏrecycling,€this€has€a€number€of€implications€that€should€not€be€ignored.€€The€original€diet€of€manÏâ âincluded€fruit€and€grain.€€All€fruit€begins€with€flowers€,€and€the€flower€petals€die€and€fall€off€toÐ -¸&* Ðmake€room€for€the€fruit.€€Then€after€the€fruit€is€eaten€there€is€usually€some€waste€part€of€the€fruitÏthat€is€not€edible.€€An€analogous€process€is€involved€in€the€growth€and€eating€of€grain.€€Ìâ âà ' àIf€"flowers€never€fading"€means€that€each€individual€flower€will€last€forever,€then€there€couldÏnever€be€any€fruit€or€grain.€€If€flower€petals€do€fall€they€will€need€to€be€recycled€or€they€willÏaccumulate€indefinitely.€€There€likely€would€be€other€organic€waste€matter€as€well.€€€Did€nobodyÏever€accidently€break€a€twig€off€of€a€tree?€€Or€would€there€be€twigs€that€need€to€be€recycled?€ÏToday€trees€lose€small€twigs€and€lower€branches€as€the€tree€grows.€€All€trees€also€make€newÏleaves€to€replace€old€ones.€€Deciduous€trees€do€this€each€year,€but€conifers€are€continuouslyÏreplacing€€needles€with€new€ones.€€Did€this€begin€only€after€sin,€or€did€trees€always€have€a€renewalÏprocess€like€conifers€have?€€The€same€process€occurs€with€animal€hair€(including€human€hair).€ÏDid€animal€hair€never€wear€out€in€Eden,€or€were€animals€made€to€renew€their€fur€coatsÏperiodically?€€What€became€of€the€old€hair?€€Did€every€cell€in€our€bodies€live€forever,€or€wereÏthere€continual€renewal€processes,€as€is€presently€true,€with€replacement€of€old€cells,€andÏphagocytes€that€remove€damaged€cells?Ìà ' àDung€beetles€have€a€life€cycle€that€is€designed€around€the€recycling€of€dung.€€They€form€ballsÏof€dung€which€they€bury€in€the€ground,€and€then€they€lay€their€eggs€in€them.€€There€are€countlessÏtypes€of€insects€that€live€by€recycling€dung,€dead€wood,€dead€organisms,€or€other€types€of€organicÏwaste.€€Either€they€were€designed€for€that€function,€or€those€adaptations€have€developedÏ(evolved)€since€sin.€€Ìà ' àWhat€are€some€options?€€Ìà ' à1)€€à0 ž àThere€was€literally€no€decay,€and€thus€there€were€no€animal€wastes,€no€organism€everÐ Àp Ðdied,€and€each€flower,€plant,€leaf,€twig€and€mosquito€lived€forever.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à2)€€à0 ž àThere€was€generally€no€decay,€€but€there€were€biological€mechanisms€to€care€for€theÐ ˜H Ðoccasional€fallen€twig€or€leaf€or€flower.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à3)€€à0 ž àThe€flower€to€fruit€cycle,€the€replacement€of€leaves€and€hair,€the€production€of€animalÐ p  Ðwastes,€the€continual€replacement€of€old€or€damaged€cells€in€organisms€(includingÏscavenging€of€these€cells€by€other€cells€designed€to€do€so),€and€the€recycling€of€theseÏwere€normal€processes€in€Eden.€€The€E.€G.€White€statements€refer€to€changes€thatÏoccurred€after€sin€that€fit€best€with€Webster's€first€definition€of€decay€„€gradual€loss€ofÏstrength,€soundness,€health,€or€beauty€„€rather€than€the€second€definition€„€to€rot€orÏdecompose.€€After€sin€began€to€affect€the€earth€trees€began€to€lose€more€leaves€than€theÏnormal€replacement,€and€perhaps€flowers€began€to€wilt€and€look€ugly€before€falling€offÏto€make€way€for€fruit.€€Or€peñãññâñhpñâññãññäñrhaps€the€statements€about€fading€flowers€meanñäññåññäñdñäññåññæñs€that€thereÏwill€always€be€beautiful€flowers,€not€that€each€individual€flower€will€last€forever.ñæññåññäñ€ñäññäñthañäññåñ€€Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à4)€à0 ž à€Scripture€has€nothing€to€say€on€this€issue.Ш%X"ž(#ž(# Ѐ€€€€à ' à€€€€Ð ”&D # Ðò òII.€€The€limits€to€predationó óÐ €'0!$ Ðà ' àThe€Biblical€statements€indicating€that€mammals€will€not€eat€each€other€is€certainly€consistentÏwith€an€absence€of€pain€and€suffering.€€Mammals€and€birds€give€indication€of€fear,€pain,€andÏsuffering€associated€with€predation.€€Also,€those€mammals€and€birds€that€have€long„lasting€pairÏbonds€sometimes€show€evidence€of€a€sense€of€loss€after€a€mate€or€a€parent€dies.€€Does€this€meanÏthat€no€animals€ever€will€eat€each€other?€€What€about€bats€and€anteaters,€which€have€veryÏâ âspecialized€adaptations€for€ñéñcatching€and€ñéñeating€insects?€€Will€they€still€eat€insects;€did€they€eatÐ -¸&* Ðinsects€in€the€garden€of€Eden;€or€were€they€originally€quite€different,€and€have€their€insect„eatingÏadaptations€developed€(evolved)€since€sin?Ìâ âà ' àOne€way€to€examine€this€question€is€to€consider€what€level€of€life€is€the€highest€level€that€canÏbe€eaten€by€other€organisms,€without€results€that€are€evil€in€a€moral€sense;€without€causing€painÏand€suffering.ÌÓ[°X°'ž A m [‡pÈ xÐ (#€%Ø'0*ˆ,à.813è5@8˜:ð<H? A°‚X'‚wA m À”XÓÌà ' àà ž àManà A àà m àà [ àhighest€level€of€intelligence;€spiritual€natureÐ Ø ˆ ÐÌà ' àà ž àMammalsà m àà0 [ àintelligent€behavior;€some€with€strong€bonds€to€mother€or€mateÐ ° ` Ð(love);€some€act€like€they€have€some€ability€to€perceive€death€à @w! àà @w! àÐ [(#[(# ÐÌà ' àà ž àBirdsà A àà m àà0 [ àmuch€more€instinctive€(automatic)€behavior€than€mammals,€butÐ t$  Ðmore€intelligent€than€reptiles;€some€have€bonds€to€a€specific€mateÐ [(#[(# Ðà ' àÌà ' àà ž àReptiles,€à m àà [ àmore€intelligence€than€fish,€but€without€bonds€to€€Ð 8è  Ðà ' àà ž à€€€€amphibians€€€€€€à [ àother€specific€individuals€(love);€no€concept€of€deathÐ $Ô  Ѐ€à ' àà ž àÐ À Ðà ' àà ž àFishà A àà m àà [ àvertebrates,€butñêñ€stillñêñ€with€largely€instinctive€behaviorÐ ü¬ ÐÌà ' àà ž àInvertebratesà0 [ àorganisms€with€power€of€movement,€but€no€intelligent€à Ð àà @Ð àÐ Ô„ Ðthought€or€appreciation€of€pain€or€fearÐ [(#[(# ÐÌà ' àà ž àSessile€animals€à [ àinvertebrates€that€do€not€move€around€Ð ˜H Ðà ' àÌà ' àà ž àPlantsà A àà m àà [ àsessile€organism;€no€brain€or€sense€organsÐ p  Ðà ' àÌà ' àà ž àFruitsà A àà m àà [ àperiodically€renewed€resource;€produced€in€excess€Ð Hø Ðà ' àÌà ' àWhat€is€it€about€death€by€being€eaten€that€is€evil?€€Since€eating€fruit€was€a€part€of€God'sÏoriginal€plan€for€us,€it€is€alright€to€eat€some€types€of€living€tissue.€€The€question€is,€what€is€theÏfeature€that€defines€the€limit€of€what€can€be€eaten€without€introducing€evil€into€nature?€€AnimalsÏmove€and€plants€generally€do€not€„€is€the€ability€to€move€the€dividing€line?€€Probably€not,€sinceÏsome€plants€have€at€least€some€parts€that€move,€and€it€seems€like€it€would€take€more€thanÏmovement€to€define€the€limit€of€what€can€be€eaten.€€If€a€bat€eats€an€insect,€is€that€a€morally€evilÏaction,€or€were€insects€designed€to€fill€a€role€in€nature€equivalent€to€mobile€plants?€€Insects€andÏother€invertebrates€will€instinctively€try€to€escape€from€predators,€but€this€does€not€mean€theyÏunderstand€death,€or€that€they€suffer€when€caught€like€higher€animals€do.€€Invertebrates€certainlyÏdo€not€have€any€sense€of€what€death€is,€nor€is€it€likely€that€they€feel€any€loss€at€the€death€ofÏanother€insect.€€Death€of€any€kind€now€reminds€us€of€our€own€mortality,€but€when€humans€haveÏimmortality€in€the€new€earth€perhaps€we€can€look€at€things€more€objectively€and€recognize€thatÏthe€death€of€insects€has€no€moral€significance€and€causes€no€suffering€to€the€insect.€€Ìà ' àIn€contrast€to€insects,€the€death€of€mammals€has€much€more€significance.€€Since€babyÏmammals€are€very€dependent€on€their€parents€for€a€time,€the€death€of€a€mother€results€in€the€slowÏand€painful€death€of€her€young.€€Some€mammals€have€very€strong€bonds€between€mother€andÐ ô-¤'+ Ðyoung€and€between€mates,€and€when€a€mate€or€parent€dies,€at€least€some€mammals€act€as€if€theyÏperceive€something€of€the€meaning€of€death.€€The€pain€and€suffering€caused€by€predation€ofÏmammals€by€other€animals€is€certainly€difficult€to€reconcile€with€a€perfect€creation,€and€all€of€theÏexamples€mentioned€in€the€Scripture€texts€quoted€above€are€mammals.€€Perhaps€mammals€wereÏcreated€with€behavioral€controls€that€prevented€them€from€attacking€each€other,€and€theseÏcontrols€broke€down€as€the€result€of€sin.Ìà ' àIf€insects€were€subject€to€predation€in€Eden,€where,€between€insects€and€mammals,€was€theÏlimit€of€predation?€€The€specific€animals€that€are€listed€in€the€revealed€descriptions€of€paradise€areÏmammals,€except€for€the€statement€that€"one€animal€was€not€to€destroy€another€animal€for€food."€ÏIn€this€statement€was€the€word€"animal"€used€in€the€precise€zoological€sense€of€animals€asÏcompared€to€plants?€€Or€was€the€common€layman's€use€of€the€word€"animal"€to€mean€"mammal"Ïcloser€to€what€she€had€in€mind?€€€€Ìà ' àSome€birds€also€have€strong€pair€bonds,€and€according€to€Konrad€Lorenz€some€even€react€toÏthe€death€of€a€mate€in€much€the€same€way€as€a€human€would.€€Reptiles,€amphibians,€and€fish€areÏmuch€more€instinctive€in€their€behavior,€so€perhaps€their€death€does€not€have€the€moralÏsignificance€of€intelligent,€warm„blooded€animals.€€However,€the€killing€and€eating€of€reptiles€byÏother€animals€is€still€difficult€to€reconcile€with€a€world€of€peace€and€love.€Ìà ' àSome€of€the€possible€options€are:Ìà ' à1)à0 ž àOnly€plants€could€be€eaten;€no€animals€were€ever€eaten,€including€invertebrates.€Ð è˜ ÐAnimals€that€are€specialized€for€eating€insects,€like€anteaters€and€bats€and€spiders,€haveÏdeveloped€those€adaptations€since€sin;€baleen€whales€have€also€developed€their€baleenÏstructures€and€the€rest€of€their€filter€feeding€mechanismñëñ€(a€filter€that€catches€food€items,Ïincluding€other€animals,€out€of€the€water)ñëñ;€all€filter„feeding€invertebrateÏanimalsñìñ€(a€filter€that€catches€food€items,€including€other€animals,€out€of€the€water)ñìñ€haveÏchanged€from€their€original€structure€to€become€filter„feeders.€€€Insect„eating€plants,Ïsuch€as€the€pitcher€plants€and€Venus€fly€traps,€have€also€evolved€those€adaptations€sinceÏsin.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à2)à0 ž àInsects€and€other€invertebrates€were€part€of€the€food€chain,€along€with€plants.€€NoÐ Hø Ðvertebrate€animals€were€ever€eaten€by€other€animals.€€Behavior€patterns€that€maintainedÏthis€limit€of€predation€began€to€break€down€after€sin,€along€with€man's€predation€onÏanimals.€€If€invertebrates€were€originally€a€source€of€food€for€other€animals,€it€eliminatesÏthe€need€to€evolve€all€of€the€filter„feeding€and€other€mechanisms€involved€in€the€eatingÏof€invertebrates.€€Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' àà0 ž àà  àAn€important€question€that€still€remains€is€how€much€change€is€required€to€develop,Ïfrom€the€created€animals,€the€vertebrate€predators€that€exist€now?€€It€is€often€assumedÏthat€this€requires€a€lot€of€anatomical€changes,€but€that€is€not€necessarily€true€for€manyÏvertebrates.€€Possibly€the€change€to€a€predatory€life€style€involved€largely€behavioralÏchanges,€with€limited€anatomical€change.€€A€common€objection€to€this€idea€is€theÏobservation€that€in€mammals€there€is€considerable€difference€between€the€digestiveÏsystems€of€carnivores€and€herbivores.€€It€is€sometimes€claimed€that€this€differenceÏbetween€carnivore€and€herbivore€digestive€tracts€would€have€to€have€developed€sinceÏthe€beginning€of€sin.€€Closer€inspection€doesn't€seem€to€support€this€conclusion.€ÏMammals€can€be€grouped€roughly€into€four€categories,€based€on€what€they€eat:Ð ž(#ž(# Ðâ âÐ -¸&* ÐÓQ%° ,X°ƒwA ™ [‡p’Xÿÿ° ‚X'‚wA m [‡p’XQÓà ' àà ž àa.€€Grass,€leavesà [ àb.€€Fruit,€roots,€fungi,à p àc.€€Carrionà  à€€€€€€€€d.€€Mostly€live€€€€€Ð P Ðâ  à ' à€€€à ž àà  àà A à€€€€à ™ à€€€€à [ àseeds,€€invertebrates,€à p àà È àà  àà x àanimalsÐ <ì Ðò òó óà ' àà ž àà  àà A à€€€€à ™ à€€€€€à [ àoccasional€meatÐ (Ø ÐÌà0 ' àà0ž'(#'(#àThe€big€difference€in€digestive€tracts€is€between€group€a€and€b,€not€between€b€and€c,€orÏbetween€c€and€d.€€The€herbivores€in€group€a€(cow€family€[Bovidae],€deer€familyÏ[Cervidae],€horses€and€their€relatives,€rabbits€and€hares,€rodent€subfamily€Ô_ÔMicrotinaeÔ_Ô,Ïetc.)€have€specialized€adaptations€for€dealing€with€the€indigestible€plant€cell€walls€inÏgrass€and€leaves.€€These€adaptations€include€longer€intestines,€and€generally€some€typeÏof€fermentation€system€where€bacteria€and€protozoa€break€down€the€plant€material€intoÏsubstances€that€mammals€can€use€as€an€energy€source.€€Some€also€chew€the€cud€„€chewÏand€swallow€the€products€from€the€fermentation€chamber€„€including€the€Bovidae,ÏCervidae,€and€rabbits€and€hares.€€Perhaps€the€animals€in€groups€b€to€d€were€originally€allÏvegetarian€(but€not€grass„eaters),€and€those€that€were€anatomically€capable€of€changingÏto€meat€eating€made€the€change.€€The€shearing€and€stabbing€teeth€of€carnivores€haveÏperhaps€been€accentuated€by€natural€selection,€but€their€original€function€was€theÏdismantling€of€fruit,€etc.€€Some€mammals€that€eat€very€little€meat€have€large€andÏpowerful€canine€teeth.€€Also€pet€African€lions€and€other€carnivores€have€been€raised€onÏvegetarian€diets€and€they€were€healthy€„€carnivores€donððt€necessarily€need€meat.€€Ð ž(#ž(# ÐÌà ' à3)à0 ž à€This€option€is€like€the€last€one,€but€includes€some€lower€vertebrates€on€the€menu.€Ð Àp ÐPerhaps€cold„blooded€vertebrates€could€be€eaten€by€other€animals€in€Eden€„€at€leastÏthose€types€that€do€not€exhibit€any€parental€care€or€other€bonding„like€behaviors.€€ñíñPñíññîñAndÏpñîñerhaps€the€carrion€feeders€like€vultures€have€always€been€the€garbage€clean„up€crew.Ð ž(#ž(# ÐÌò òIII.€€Deathó óÐ \  Ðà ' àThe€issue€of€the€limits€of€death€in€paradise€needs€to€be€considered€in€its€own€right,€aside€fromÏthe€question€of€predation.€€Some€individuals€believe€that€in€heaven€if€we€are€about€to€accidentlyÏstep€on€an€ant,€an€angel€will€be€sure€to€move€the€ant€aside.€€I€have€no€doubt€that€angels€areÏcapable€of€being€that€alert,€but€is€that€really€the€way€it€will€be?€€The€discussion€under€the€subjectÏof€predation€is€also€pertinent€here,€in€the€sense€that€death€has€a€different€significance€forÏinvertebrates€then€it€has€for€thinking,€loving€mammals.€€But€there€are€other€issues€involved€asÏwell.€€What€does€the€tree€of€life€mean€for€humans?€€We€will€need€to€eat€of€the€tree€of€life€in€orderÏto€live€forever.€€In€Patriarchs€and€Prophets,€p.€60€it€says€"In€order€to€possess€an€endless€existence,Ïman€must€continue€to€partake€of€the€tree€of€life.€€Deprived€of€this,€his€vitality€would€graduallyÏdiminish€until€life€should€become€extinct.ðð€€Is€the€tree€of€life€just€symbolic,€or€does€it€have€someÏreal€function?€€My€favorite€hypothesis€is€that€the€fruit€of€the€tree€of€life€contains€a€set€of€enzymesÏthat€activate€a€renewal€or€replacement€mechanism€in€the€cells€of€our€bodies,€that€prevents€aging.€€Ìà ' àWhat€about€mice,€lizards,€and€Ô_ÔBluejaysÔ_Ô€„€do€they€live€forever€without€eating€from€the€tree€ofÏlife?€€Perhaps€the€mice€and€other€small€animals€gather€from€around€the€world€periodically€to€eatÏfrom€the€tree€of€life,€but€that€doesn't€seem€highly€probable.€€Was€there€an€alternate€source€of€theÏ"tree€of€life€enzymes"€for€non„human€animals?€€Otherwise€it€would€seem€quite€inconsistent€thatÏhumans€would€have€to€eat€from€the€tree€of€life,€but€other€animals€would€live€forever€withoutÏdoing€so.€€On€the€other€hand€another€possibility€is€that€man's€relationship€to€the€tree€of€life€isÐ ô-¤'+ Ðdifferent€from€other€animals,€for€the€same€reason€that€man€has€to€use€intelligence€to€accomplishÏmany€things€that€other€animals€do€instinctively.€€If€that€is€true,€then€perhaps€humans€need€the€treeÏof€life,€but€other€(non„rational,€non„spiritual)€animals€live€forever€without€the€tree€of€life.€€Ìà ' àThere€are€other€implications€as€well,€if€animals€were€originally€intended€to€live€forever.€€IfÏthat€were€true,€either€the€universe€would€have€to€expand€forever,€exponentially,€so€the€excessÏanimals€could€be€moved€to€new€homes,€or€else€reproduction€would€have€to€stop€when€the€earthÏwas€adequately€supplied€with€animals.€€Of€course€this€problem€exists€for€humans€no€matter€howÏother€animal€populations€were€controlled.€€If€humans€had€not€sinned,€at€some€point€humanÏreproduction€would€have€to€have€stopped€unless€the€universe€is€forever€expanding.Ìà ' àThe€most€direct€statement€pertinent€to€this€question€is€ñïñiñïññðñoñðñn€PP€p.€68€„€"It€was€the€first€time€heÏ(Adam)€had€ever€witnessed€death,€and€he€knew€that€had€he€been€obedient€to€God,€there€wouldÏhave€been€no€death€of€man€or€beast."€€It€would€be€helpful€if€we€had€been€given€a€definition€of€justÏwhat€was€meant€here€by€"beast".€€Did€it€mean€domestic€animals,€mammals,€or€what?€€The€part€ofÏthe€statement€that€says€that€he€had€not€witnessed€death€does€not€necessarily€mean€that€no€death€ofÏlower€animals€ever€occurred€down€in€their€nests€or€burrows,€and€if€Adam€had€not€become€subjectÏto€death€he€may€have€had€quite€a€different€perspective€on€the€death€of€an€insect€or€even€a€mouse.Ì€Ìà ' àSome€of€the€options€for€the€limits€of€death€are:Ìà ' à1)à0 ž àNot€only€was€there€no€predation,€but€no€animals€ever€died.€€No€insects€will€ever€getÐ è˜ Ðaccidently€stepped€on,€and€even€mice€live€forever.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à2)à0 ž àHumans€and€other€vertebrate€animals€(at€least€the€higher,€warm„blooded€vertebrates)Ð Àp Ðlive€forever.€€Plants€and€invertebrates€all€have€a€genetically€determined€life€span€(as€isÏcurrently€true)€and€then€they€die€and€are€replaced€by€new€offspring.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à3)à0 ž àHumans€(in€addition€to€heavenly€beings)€live€forever,€and€they€do€so€because€they€eatÐ „4 Ðfrom€the€tree€of€life.€€Higher€vertebrates€(perhaps€all€vertebrates)€are€not€subject€toÏpredation,€but€all€plants€and€most€non„human€animals€have€a€genetically€defined€life€spanÏ(as€is€currently€true)€and€then€they€quietly€die€and€are€recycled.€€€Some,€and€perhaps€all,Ïmammals€do€not€die.€€Carefully€designed€behavioral€mechanisms€limit€predation€toÏanimals€that€do€not€suffer€because€of€being€killed,€and€death€is€limited€to€animals€that€doÏnot€understand€the€meaning€of€life€and€death.€€Synchrony€in€length€of€life€within€anyÏgiven€species€reduces€or€eliminates€the€emotional€pain€of€an€animal€losing€a€mate.€ÏPopulation€control€mechanism€are€highly€efficient,€and€prevent€overpopulation.Ð ž(#ž(# Ðà ' à4)à0 ž àAs€number€4,€but€all€non„human€animals€are€subject€to€death.€€They€live€out€theirÐ Ð#€  Ðgenetically€programmed€life€cycle,€and€then€quietly€die€and€are€recycled.ò òм$l!ž(#ž(# ÐÌConclusions€€€ó ó€€Ð ”&D # ÐÌà ' àWhat€does€Scripture€and€E.€G.€White€writings€tell€us€about€these€options,€at€least€if€weÏaccept€the€more€conservative€interpretations?ÌÌà ' àA.€€The€following€hypotheses€seem€to€be€favored€by€many€Christians.€€They€are€òòconsistentóóÐ 4+ä$( Ðwith€revelation,€but€may€not€be€òòrequired€óóby€the€prophetic€writings,€unless€we€read€something€inÐ  ,Ð%) Ðbetween€the€lines€of€those€statements€that€is€not€really€there.€€I€donððt€see€any€biblical€reason€toÐ  -¼&* Ðaccept€these€hypotheses.€€The€term€decay€can€readily€be€understood€as€meaning€the€gradualÏdegenerative€effects€of€sin,€not€bacterial€recycling.€€E.€G.€Whiteððs€exclamation€(Early€Writings€p.Ï18)€upon€being€shown€flowers€in€the€new€earth€that€ð ðthey€will€never€fadeðð€doesnððt€sound€like€aÏtheological€revelation,€but€rather€sounds€like€her€spontaneous,€exuberant€reaction€to€the€beautyÏbefore€her.€€€€ÌÓ„X°X°'Êö m [‡pÈ xÐ (#€%Ø'0*ˆ,à.813è5@8˜:ð<H? A° ,X°ƒwA ™ [‡p’X„ÓÌà ' àI.€€1)à0 Ê àThere€was€literally€no€decay,€and€thus€there€were€no€animal€wastes,€no€organismÐ Ø ˆ Ðever€died,€and€each€flower,€plant,€leaf,€twig€and€mosquito€lived€forever.Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌà ' àII.€€1)à0 Ê àOnly€plants€could€be€eaten;€no€animals€were€ever€eaten,€including€invertebrates.€Ð œL  ÐInsect„eating€plants€and€animals€that€are€specialized€for€eating€invertebrates,€likeÏanteaters€and€bats,€spiders,€and€filter€feeders,€have€developed€those€adaptations€sinceÏsin.Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌà ' àIII.€€1)à0 Ê àNot€only€was€there€no€predation,€but€no€animals€ever€died.€€No€insects€will€ever€getÐ 8è  Ðaccidently€stepped€on,€and€even€mice€live€forever.Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌà ' àB.€€The€following€hypotheses,€in€my€current€opinion,€are€not€clearly€refuted€by€even€the€mostÏconservative,€literalistic€reading€of€the€prophetic€writings.€€We€can€only€judge€them€according€toÏour€subjective€concepts€of€what€is€morally€evil€about€death€and/or€predation€at€various€levels€ofÏlife.€€ÌÌà ' àI.€€2)à0 Ê àThere€was€generally€no€decay,€€but€there€were€biological€mechanisms€to€care€for€theÐ ˜H Ðoccasional€fallen€twig€or€leaf€or€flower.Ð Ê(#Ê(# Ðà ' àI.€€3)à0 Ê àThe€flower€to€fruit€cycle,€the€replacement€of€leaves€and€hair,€the€production€ofÐ p  Ðanimal€wastes,€the€continual€replacement€of€old€or€damaged€cells€in€organismsÏ(including€scavenging€of€these€cells€by€other€cells€designed€to€do€so),€and€theÏrecycling€of€these€were€normal€processes€in€Eden.€€€After€sin€began€to€affect€theÏearth€there€was€a€gradual€loss€of€strength,€soundness,€health,€or€beauty;€trees€beganÏto€lose€more€leaves€than€the€normal€replacement,€and€perhaps€flowers€began€to€wiltÏand€look€ugly€before€falling€off€to€make€way€for€fruit.€€Or€perhaps€the€statementsÏabout€fading€flowers€means€that€there€will€always€be€beautiful€flowers,€not€that€eachÏindividual€flower€will€last€forever.€€€€Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌà ' àII.€€2)à0 Ê àInsects€and€other€invertebrates€were€part€of€the€food€chain,€along€with€plants.€€NoÐ ¨%X" Ðvertebrate€animals€were€ever€eaten€by€other€animals.€€Behavior€patterns€thatÏmaintained€this€limit€of€predation€began€to€break€down€after€sin,€along€with€man'sÏpredation€on€animals.€€Ð Ê(#Ê(# Ðà ' àII.€€3à0 Ê àSome€lower€vertebrates,€in€addition€to€the€invertebrates,€were€eaten€by€other€animalsÐ X)#& Є€at€least€those€types€that€do€not€exhibit€any€parental€care€or€other€bonding„likeÏbehaviors.€€ñññPññññòñAnd€pñòñerhaps€the€carrion€feeders€like€vultures€have€always€been€theÏgarbage€clean„up€crew.Ð Ê(#Ê(# Ðâ âÐ -¸&* Ðà ' àIII.€€2)à0 Ê àHumans€and€other€vertebrate€animals€(at€least€the€higher,€warm„blooded€vertebrates)Ð P Ðâ âlive€forever.€€Plants€and€invertebrates€all€have€a€genetically€determined€life€span€andÏthen€they€die€and€are€replaced€by€new€offspring.Ð Ê(#Ê(# Ðà ' àIII.€€3)à0 Ê àHumans€(in€addition€to€heavenly€beings)€live€forever,€and€they€do€so€because€theyÐ  Ä Ðeat€from€the€tree€of€life.€€Higher€vertebrates€(perhaps€all€vertebrates)€are€not€subjectÏto€predation,€but€all€plants€and€most€non„human€animals€have€a€genetically€definedÏlife€span€and€then€they€quietly€die€and€are€recycled.€€Some,€and€perhaps€all,€mammalsÏdo€not€die.€€Carefully€designed€behavioral€mechanisms€limit€predation€to€animals€thatÏdo€not€suffer€because€of€being€killed,€and€death€is€limited€to€animals€that€do€notÏunderstand€the€meaning€of€life€and€death€and€have€largely€instinctive€behavior.€ÏPopulation€control€mechanism€are€highly€efficient,€and€prevent€overpopulation.Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌà ' àC.€€The€following€hypotheses€do€not€seem€to€be€compatible€with€at€least€some€ScriptureÏand/or€E.€G.€White€statements,€at€least€with€our€common€understandings€of€these€statements.€€ÌÌà ' àI.€4)à Ê àScripture€has€nothing€to€say€on€this€issue.Ð $Ô  Ðà ' àIII.€€4)à0 Ê àAll€non„human€animals,€including€the€higher€mammals,€are€subject€to€death€in€€aÐ À Ðperfect€world.€Ð Ê(#Ê(# ÐÌÌà ' àWe€can€not€realistically€expect€to€know€the€answers€to€the€questions€raised€in€this€paper€untilÏwe€get€to€heaven,€and€it€is€not€important€for€us€to€have€those€answers.€€The€benefit€of€goingÏthrough€this€discussion€is€that€it€may€help€us€to€avoid€making€claims€that€are€not€supported€by€aÏcareful€study€of€the€writings€that€God€has€given€through€His€prophets.€€Perhaps€the€tentativeÏconclusions€reached€here€will€also€stimulate€biblical€scholars€to€analyze€the€pertinent€texts€in€waysÏthat€I€am€not€qualified€to€do,€and€thus€provide€more€light€on€the€subject.ÌÌÌÌÔ_ÔÔ‡ôµá õXX-äÔñóñrevised€ñóñOct.Ô_Ô€24,€2002Ô#†X-äX õôµáµŽ#Ô